Introdução: O câncer de mama é um problema de saúde publica, sendo a maior causa de morbidade e mortalidade de câncer em mulheres de todo mundo. O rastreamento mamográfico mostrou-se efetivo na redução na mortalidade por câncer de mama em países desenvolvidos, entretanto ainda não é consenso a idade de início do rastreamento mamográfico. Objetivo: Verificar o impacto do rastreamento mamográfico em mulheres entre 40-49 anos na região de Barretos. Casuística e métodos: Este é um estudo observacional transversal que incluíram mulheres assintomáticas com idade entre 40-69 anos que foram submetidas a rastreamento mamográfico entre os anos de 2003 a 2007. As mulheres com exames classificadas pelo sistema BI-RADS em zero, quatro ou cinco foram convocados para investigação. Foram descritas as freqüências absolutas e relativas das variáveis e suas diferenças analisadas pelo teste de qui-quadrado sendo escolhido o nível de significância p <0,05. Foi realizado análise de regressão logística para avaliar o risco de câncer de mama em relação à idade. Resultados: 27.133 mulheres com idades entre 40-69 foram selecionadas, 52% (14.082) das mamografias foram feitas em mulheres de 40 a 49 anos. Foram detectados 132 casos de câncer de mama em mulheres de 40 a 69 anos sendo 49 casos entre mulheres de 40 a 49. A estimativa de risco de câncer de mama entre mulheres de 40 e 49 anos (OR 0,43 [IC95% 0,28 - 0,66]) foi significativamente menor do que entre 60-69 anos. Dos casos de câncer de mama em mulheres de 40 a 49 anos 55% eram iniciais (Estádio Clínico 0-I) enquanto que no período anterior ao rastreamento eram 13%. Conclusões: O rastreamento mamográfico realizado na Região de Barretos mostrou menor risco de câncer de mama nas mulheres de 40 a 49 anos em relação às mulheres entre 60 e 69 anos. O estudo mostrou ainda que o rastreamento aumentou o número de casos iniciais (Estádio Clínico 0-I) entre as mulheres de 40 e 49 anos em relação ao período anterior ao rastreamento / Introduction: Breast cancer is a public health problem, being the major cause of morbidity and mortality of cancer in women worldwide. The mammographic screening was effective in reducing mortality from breast cancer in developed countries, but consensus is not yet the age of onset of mammographic screening. Objective: Investigate the impact of mammographic screening in women aged 40-49 years in Barretos region. Methods: This is a cross sectional observational study that included asymptomatic women aged 40-69 years who underwent screening mammography between the years 2003 to 2007. Women with tests classified by the BI-RADS at zero, four or five were summoned for investigation. We described the absolute and relative frequencies of the variables and their differences were analyzed by chi-square was chosen significance level p <0.05. Was performed logistic regression analysis to assess the risk of breast cancer in relation to age. Results: 27,133 women aged 40-69 were selected, 52% (14 082) of mammograms were performed in women 40 to 49 years. We detected 132 cases of breast cancer in women aged 40 to 69 years with 49 cases among women 40 to 49. The estimated risk of breast cancer among women between 40 and 49 years (OR 0.43 [95% CI 0.28 to 0.66]) was significantly lower than 60-69 years. Cases of breast cancer in women aged 40 to 49 years 55% were early (clinical stage 0-I) while in the period prior to screening was 13%. Conclusions: The screening mammography performed in the region Barrie showed a lower risk of breast cancer in women aged 40 to 49 years for women between 60 and 69 years. The study also showed that screening increased the number of initial cases (clinical stage 0-I) among women aged 40 to 49 years in the period prior to screening

Breast cancer is a serious illness that often has fatal consequences. Adherence to the recommendations for breast cancer surveillance is poorly practiced among African American women. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to seek individual professed barriers to breast cancer screening among African American women to better understand why breast cancer continues to be one of the principal basis of mortality among African American women. The theoretical framework for this study was the behavioral model of health services use. Purposeful selection was used to invite 14 African American women to participate in the in-depth interview process. Interview data were transcribed and then coded for recurring themes and meaning. The findings of this study demonstrate that these women's perceived barriers to breast cancer screening were lack of information, a belief that genetics dictates who gets breast cancer, embarrassment, a norm of people not going for health checkups, the procedure of breast cancer screening, and fear. Participants noted that the improved method of mammography may promote utilization within the population. Breast cancer disparities among African American women may decline if healthcare providers promote awareness of the availability and accessibility of breast cancer prevention resources and if African American women understand the barriers to breast cancer prevention and change their own screening practices.

Il presente lavoro di tesi affronta il tema della prevenzione del tumore alla mammella nell’ambito del contesto italiano. Con un primo studio ci si pone l’obiettivo di indagare le conoscenze, le rappresentazioni, le emozioni ed i comportamenti che donne del nord e del sud d’Italia hanno riguardo il concetto di prevenzione del tumore alla mammella. Nello specifico si vuole indagare se la cultura e il luogo di provenienza delle donne hanno un’influenza sulle loro rappresentazioni riguardo l’argomento di interesse. Questo obiettivo è stato perseguito con l’utilizzo di focus group condotti in Lombardia e in Campania. I risultati a questo studio hanno messo in luce notevoli differenze tra i due gruppi, in particolare rispetto alle conoscenze e alle pratiche preventive messe in atto. Con un secondo studio si vuole indagare un ampio campione (N= 2070) di donne lombarde che partecipano allo screening mammografico (programma preventivo offerto dal SSN). All’interno di tale campione si voglio individuare profili psicologici caratterizzanti le donne e i predittori dell’ansia pre-screening, una variabile frequente tra i soggetti che si sottopongono a mammografia preventiva. I risultati a questo studio evidenziano la presenza di tre profili psicologici (cluster) all’interno dei quali si suddivide il campione. Questi profili differenziano le donne e le motivazioni che le conducono a prendere parte al programma di screening. Sempre grazie alle analisi effettuate per soddisfare gli obiettivi del secondo studio è stato possibile determinare che bassa stabilità emotiva, bassa qualità di vita e basso ottimismo hanno influenza nell’incrementare i livelli di ansia in donne in attesa di sottoporsi a screening mammografico. / The present dissertation deals with the topic of breast cancer prevention in the Italian context. The first study of the research aimed to explore the knowledge, the representations, the emotions and the behaviors that northern and southern women have about breast cancer prevention. We want to investigate if cultural and contextual factors influence representations that women have about the topic of interest. We satisfied the objective of the first study conducting focus group in a northern and in a southern region of Italy. The outcome of this study highlighted differences between the two groups especially concerning women knowledge and their behaviors in regard to breast cancer prevention. The second study aimed to investigate a sample (N=2075) of Italian northern women that choose to take part in the national breast cancer screening. The specific objectives of this study were the identification of psychological profiles that characterize this sample and pre-screening anxiety predictors, a common variable among women waiting to have a mammogram. The results at this study highlighted three clusters that differentiated women and the reason why they decide to take part in the prevention program. Analysis performed for the second study identified low emotional stability, low quality of life and low optimism as pre-screening anxiety predictors.

Orientador: Marilisa Berti de Azevedo Barros / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-06T03:54:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Amorim_VivianMaeSchmidtLima_M.pdf: 4488126 bytes, checksum: 21881a106ebbf7f21647cafe00bfac77 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Resumo:Justificativa: O câncer de mama e do colo de útero são neoplasias com altas taxas de incidência e mortalidade no Brasil e que dispõem de métodos eficazes de rastreamento para detecção precoce, oferecidos pelo Sistema Único de Saúde. Existe a necessidade de se identificar os subgrupos de mulheres que não realizam as práticas preventivas para esses agravos, como forma de se desenvolver estratégias, nas três esferas de governo, que venham minimizar as desigualdades ainda existentes em relação ao acesso aos serviços de saúde, a oferta de cuidados básicos, ao diagnóstico, tratamento e reabilitação nas questões relativas à saúde da mulher. Objetivos: Analisar as práticas de detecção precoce para o câncer de mama e do colo uterino, segundo características sociodemográficas, morbidade e comportamentos relacionados à saúde. Material e Métodos: Estudo do tipo transversal, de base populacional, tendo como população de estudo todos os indivíduos do sexo feminino com idade igual ou superior a 40 anos, não institucionalizados, residentes na área urbana de Campinas. Para a obtenção da amostra, os setores censitários do município de Campinas, foram agrupados em três estratos, segundo o percentual de chefes de família com nível universitário. Foram sorteados 10 setores censitários de cada estrato, e de cada setor censitário foram sorteados os domicílios e selecionados os indivíduos que seriam entrevistados, segundo os domínios de sexo e idade. As informações foram obtidas por meio de questionário estruturado em 19 blocos temáticos, com a maioria das questões fechadas, aplicado diretamente à pessoa sorteada.. O presente estudo incluiu 290 indivíduos pertencentes a dois domínios: mulheres de 20 a 59 anos e mulheres de 60 anos ou mais. Foram incluídos na análise dois grupos de variáveis: as independentes, compostas por variáveis sociodemográficas, comportamentos relacionados à saúde e estado da saúde e as dependentes, referentes à realização das práticas preventivas para a detecção do câncer de mama e do colo de útero. Para as análises estatísticas foi utilizado o programa STATA 7.0, que possibilitou levar em consideração as variáveis do plano de amostragem e o efeito de delineamento. As análises incluíram estimativas de prevalência, de razões de odds brutas e modelos de regressão logística múltipla. Resultados: O presente estudo possibilitou verificar que 83,3% das mulheres com 40 anos ou mais de idade, residentes em Campinas, encontram-se com a prática adequada em relação ao exame de Papanicolaou; 8,5% das mulheres entre 40 e 59 anos de idade e 11,1% das mulheres com 60 anos ou mais nunca haviam realizado o exame de Papanicolaou. Entre os principais motivos alegados pelas mulheres que nunca realizaram o exame citológico, destacam-se: achar que a realização deste exame não é necessária (43,5%), sentir vergonha (28,1%) e dificuldades relacionadas ao serviço prestador do exame (13,7%). Foram detectados, na análise univariada, os seguintes fatores associados à não-realização do exame citológico: idade, raça/cor, escolaridade, número de pessoas no domicílio, posse de bens, a não realização de exames preventivos para o câncer de mama. Os resultados da análise de regressão logística múltipla hierarquizada apontaram que não estar com a prática adequada quanto ao exame de Papanicolaou é mais freqüente nas mulheres entre 40 a 59 anos de idade, com escolaridade de até 4 anos, não brancas, e que não tiveram consulta odontológica no último ano. Verificou-se que 43,2% das mulheres que haviam feito o Papanicolaou tinham-no realizado em serviços do SUS. Em relação às práticas relativas à detecção precoce do câncer de mama, 50,8% das mulheres não fizeram mamografia nos últimos dois anos e dessas, 42,5% nunca haviam feito a mamografia e 8,3% realizaram-na há mais de 2 anos; 38,2 % não foram submetidas ao exame físico das mamas no ano que antecedeu a entrevista. Entre as mulheres com 70 anos ou mais de idade foram encontradas as maiores proporções de não realização da mamografia (67,7%) e do exame clínico das mamas (56,5%). Para a não realização do exame físico anual das mamas, nas análises univariadas, foram encontradas associações com: idade, raça/cor, situação conjugal, escolaridade, posse de bens, consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, prática de atividade física, do auto exame da mama, da mamografia e da citologia oncótica, e o uso de serviços odontológicos. Para a não realização da mamografia nos dois anos que antecederam a entrevista foram encontrados, nas análises univariadas, os seguintes fatores associados: idade, raça/cor, renda familiar per capita, posse de bens, consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, a prática do exame físico anual das mamas e da citologia oncótica. Os resultados do modelo de regressão logística múltipla mostraram que a não-realização do exame clínico das mamas foi mais freqüente entre as mulheres que vivem sem companheiro, que residem em domicílios com mais de quatro moradores, que não ingerem bebidas alcoólicas, que não realizaram o auto-exame das mamas e que não fizeram consulta odontológica no último ano. A não-realização da mamografia foi mais prevalente nas mulheres idade igual ou superior a 70 anos, não brancas, e que não ingeriam bebida alcoólica. Dos exames relatados, 28,8% das mamografias e 38,1% dos exames clínicos de mamas foram realizados pelo Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). Conclusão: Esse estudo mostrou importantes características das mulheres que não realizam de forma adequada as práticas preventivas para o câncer de colo de útero e o de mama e que estratégias necessitam serem desenvolvidas pelos gestores da saúde, nos três níveis de governo, com o objetivo de minimizar as desigualdades de acesso, garantindo-se os princípios da equidade e da integralidade das ações pertinentes ao programa da saúde da mulher / Abstract: Background: Brazil has high incidence and mortality rates of breast and cervical cancer even though effective screening methods for early detection are provided by the Unified Health System-SUS. There is a need to identify subgroups of women who do not undergo preventive practices for these conditions, so as to develop strategies at the three levels of government in order to minimize the inequalities that still exist in terms of access to health services, offer of basic care, diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation in issues related to women¿s health. Objectives: To analyze early detection practices for breast and cervical cancer, according to socio-demographic characteristics, morbidity and health-related behaviors. Methods: Cross-sectional, population-based study of all non-institutionalized women, 40 years old and over, and living in the urban area of Campinas. The sample was constructed by dividing the census sectors of Campinas into three strata groups according to the percentage of heads of households with college education. Ten census sectors were drawn from each stratum, and households were drawn and individuals selected for interviews from each census sector, according to gender and age. Information was derived from a questionnaire structured in 19 theme blocks, mostly with closed questions asked directly to the individual drawn. The present study included 290 individuals as follows: women, 20 to 59 years old and women 60 and over. Two groups of variables were analyzed: independent variables, encompassing socio-demographic variables, health-related behaviors and individual and family members¿ health status in terms of undergoing preventive practices to detect breast and cervical cancer. Statistical analysis was performed by using the STATA 7.0 program, which enabled taking into account the variables of the sample plan and design effect. Analyses included prevalence estimates, overall odds ratio and multiple regression logistic models. Results: The present study made it possible to verify that 83.3% of women 40 years and over, living in Campinas, have an inappropriate practice in relation to Pap smears; 8.5% of women between 40 and 59 years of age and that 11.1% of women 60 and over had never undergone a Pap smear. Among the major reasons pointed out by the women that had never had oncotic cytology, the following stand out: believing the test is not necessary (43.5%), being embarrassed (28.1%), and obstacles related to the service performing the test (13.7%). The univariate analysis detected the following factors associated with not having a cytology smear: age, race/color, schooling, number of individuals in the household, having assets, not doing preventive exams for breast cancer. The result of the hierarchy multiple regression logistic analysis pointed out that not having an appropriate practice in relation to Pap smears is more frequent in non-white women between 40 and 59 years of age, with up to 4 years of schooling and that had not had a dental appointment in the past year. The study verified that 43.2% of women that had been submitted to a Pap smear had done so in a SUS service. Regarding practices related to early detection of breast cancer, 50.8% of women had not had a mammogram in the past two years, and of these, 42.5% had never had a mammogram, and 8.3% had had one more than 2 years before; 38.2% had not been submitted to a breast examination in the year preceding the interview. The largest ratios of not having a mammogram (67.7%) and of not having a clinical breast exam (56.5%) were found among women 70 years old and over. The following associations were found in the univariate analyses for not having an annual breast exam: age, race/color, marital status, schooling, having assets, liquor consumption, exercising, breast self-examination, mammogram and cytology, and utilization of dental services. The following associated factors were found in the univariate analyses for not having a mammogram in the two years preceding the interview: age, race/color, per capita family income, having assets, liquor consumption, having had an annual breast exam and cytology. The results of the multiple regression logistic model showed that not having a clinical breast exam was more frequent among women that: live without a companion or in households with more than four residents, do not drink liquor, do not perform self breast examination and did not have a dental appointment in the past year. Not having a mammogram was more prevalent in non-white women 70 years or over, and that did not drink liquor. Of the tests mentioned, 28.8% of mammograms and 38.1% of clinical breast exams were performed by the SUS. Conclusion: The study showed the major features of women that did not have appropriate preventive practices for cervical and breast cancer, and that health managers should develop strategies at the three levels of government in order to minimize access inequalities and to guarantee the principles of equity and integrality of the actions of women¿s health programs / Mestrado / Mestre em Saude Coletiva

O câncer de mama é a neoplasia maligna mais prevalente entre as mulheres no mundo e representa 23% de todos os cânceres femininos. Buscou-se avaliar a implementação de um programa de rastreamento mamográfico para as mulheres que vivem na área de Barretos usando uma unidade móvel (UM) e uma unidade fixa (UF). Um total de 54.238 mulheres com idade entre 40 a 69 anos reside nesta área e são elegíveis para a participação no programa. Os dados epidemiológicos das mulheres foram examinadas entre 01 de abril de 2003 e 31 de março de 2005. A análise estatística foi constituída pela avaliação das freqüências dos parâmetros clínicos e as características do tumor usando o teste de Qui-quadrado com correção de Bonferroni, com valor de confiança de p<0,05. Um total de 17.964 mulheres (media de 51 anos de idade) foram efetivamente examinadas por mamografia, o que representou 33,1% de todas as mulheres elegíveis (18,6 exames por dia na UF e 26,3 na UM). Setenta e seis casos foram diagnosticados como câncer de mama (41, ou 54%, no UM), o que representa 4,2 casos de câncer de mama para cada 1.000 exames. Foi observada diferença significativa na detecção de câncer entre mulheres com idade entre 50-59 e 60-69 anos (p<0,001) e com idade entre 40-49 e 60-69 anos (p<0,001). Não foram observadas diferenças entre 40 a 49 e 50-59 anos (p = 0,164). O programa de rastreamento mamografico é viável no território nacional e os resultados preliminares são animadores / Breast cancer is the most prevalent malignancy among women worldwide and enrolls 23% of all female cancers. We sought to evaluate the implementation of a screening program for women who living in Barretos county area using a mobile unit (MU) and a fixed unit (FU). A total of 54,238 women aged 40 to 69 years is living in this area and are eligible for breast screening. Epidemiologic-based data supported the study design and the women were examined from April 01, 2003 to March 31, 2005. Statistical analysis supported the evaluation of clinical parameters frequencies and tumor characteristics using Chi-test and Bonferroni correction test, with confidence value of p<0,05. Overall of 17,964 women (media of 51 years old) were effectively examined by mammogram which represented 33,1% of all eligible women (18,6 in RA and 26,3 exams in MU per day). Seventy-six cases were diagnosed as breast cancer (41, or 54%, at MU), which represents 4,2 cases of breast cancer for each 1.000 exams. It was observed significant difference of cancer detection between women aged 50 to 59 and 60 to 69 yrs (p<0, 001) and between women aged 40 to 49 and 60 to 69 yrs (p<0,001). No differences were observed between aged 40 to 49 and 50 to 59 yrs (p=0,164). The program for mammogram screening is feasible to be implementing in Brazil territory and the preliminary results are encouraging

Due to the constantly increasing epidemiological burden of our population on oncological diseases, nationwide preventive programs for selected types of malignant tumors have been introduced within the Czech health system. The aim of this thesis is to analyze and evaluate these screenings, such as mammographic screening, cervical screening and screening of the colon and rectum. The subject of the analysis is the mortality rates for breast cancer (C50), cervix (C53) and colon and rectum cancer (C18-21) between 1994 and 2015. The main focus is on question of whether the development of the mortality rate for selected neoplasms depends on the degree of coverage rate by a preventive program.

This diploma thesis deals with the national screening programs for cancer diagnosis. The goal of this thesis is to find a proper way how to evaluate the effectivity of screening programs as well as their influence on the intensity of mortality from certain types of cancer. For the purpose of finding out necessary information were used data related to the diagnosis of colorectal cancer, a diagnosis of cervical cancer and breast cancer in the population of the Czech Republic between 1977 - 2011. This thesis is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter is an introduction to the topic and contains the description of the main goals. The second chapter defines terms that are crucial for this thesis. The third chapter is devoted to data sources and institutions that collect different types of data and health statistics. The next chapter deals with the epidemiology of all described types of cancer and also provide information on risk factors and symptoms of the disease. The fifth chapter looks back at trends in mortality and incidence of the most common malignant tumors in the Czech Republic. The sixth chapter describes planning and implementation of screening processes. The seventh history of screening programs in the Czech Republic. The eighth chapter deals with the rules and regulations of the EU Council and the World Health Organization. The ninth chapter represents the final assessment of Czech screening programs, compared both to the WHO guidelines and the results in the world. The last chapter is including description of mortality and their reaction on screening programs. Text describes even comparison with two other European countries (Germany, France).

Submitted by Filipe dos Santos (fsantos@pucsp.br) on 2018-04-09T13:03:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Gláucia Pina Guimarães Porto.pdf: 1499688 bytes, checksum: 9b69a1bc17f6ff424722f5c5d389b4b0 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-09T13:03:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gláucia Pina Guimarães Porto.pdf: 1499688 bytes, checksum: 9b69a1bc17f6ff424722f5c5d389b4b0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-03-02 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Understanding breast health from needs and conditions in a socially contextualized way can be a way to develop consistent public policies for the promotion of breast and woman health as a tool for the prevention and early detection of breast cancer through institutions and organizations committed to social development in combating the disease. The overall objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the literature regarding the beliefs and perceptions that healthy women have about breast cancer. The research problem arose from the observation of the psychosocioeducational difficulties of women in cases of breast cancer, as well as for preventive care and early detection of the disease, for approximately two years, in a pilot project of health intervention with emphasis on the public roles of women in the fight against breast cancer, through an intervention research with a multidisciplinary character. The method was the systematic review of literature. The initial selection of articles was done through the reading of the title and abstract, and the exclusion of duplicate results was performed by the identification of the main author. As an inclusion criterion for the analysis of the results, the strength of evidence of the selected studies was summarized and the relevance of the most interesting descriptors was considered, aiming at the accomplishment of a qualitative synthesis. From 2,926 studies found, 96.24% were mastectomized women, and 2.90% were eligible studies whose study object considers behaviors of healthy women, their beliefs, perceptions and / or knowledge about prevention and early detection of the disease . The results indicate that the production of knowledge about the problem is scarce, with consequences on the limits of changing beliefs and perceptions about breast cancer. The reassignment of healthy women on breast cancer based on correct information can increase the rate of detection of the disease, which can avoid many deaths, and reduce the expenditure of public funds with treatments for advanced diagnoses. This change in attitude makes it possible for early detection not to be seen as a threat but as the best path to health / Compreender a saúde da mama a partir das necessidades e condições de forma contextualizada socialmente pode ser uma via para o desenvolvimento de políticas públicas consistentes de promoção da saúde das mamas e da mulher, como ferramenta de prevenção e detecção precoce do câncer de mama, por meio de instituições e organizações comprometidas com o desenvolvimento social em combater a doença. O objetivo geral deste estudo foi de realizar uma revisão sistemática da literatura a respeito de crenças e percepções que as mulheres saudáveis possuem sobre câncer de mama. O problema de pesquisa surgiu a partir da observação das dificuldades psicossocioeducacionais de mulheres frente aos casos de câncer de mama e também para realização dos cuidados preventivos e de detecção precoce da doença, durante aproximadamente dois anos, em um projeto piloto de intervenção em saúde, com ênfase nos papéis públicos das mulheres no combate ao câncer de mama, por meio de uma pesquisa-intervenção com caráter multidisciplinar. O método foi o da revisão sistemática de literatura. A seleção inicial dos artigos se deu por meio da leitura do título e resumo, e a exclusão dos resultados duplicados foi realizada pela identificação do autor principal. Como critério de inclusão para análise dos resultados, a força de evidência dos estudos selecionados foi sumarizada e a relevância dos descritores de maior interesse foi considerada, visando a realização de uma síntese qualitativa. Entre os 2.926 estudos encontrados 96,24% tinham como objeto de estudo mulheres mastectomizadas, e 2,90% foram estudos elegíveis cujo objeto de estudo considere comportamentos de mulheres saudáveis, suas crenças, percepções e/ou conhecimentos sobre prevenção e detecção precoce da doença. Os resultados indicam que a produção de conhecimento sobre o problema é escassa, com consequências nos limites quanto à mudança de crenças e percepções sobre câncer de mama. A ressignificação da mulher saudável sobre câncer de mama com base em informações corretas pode aumentar o índice de detecção da doença, o que pode evitar muitas mortes, além de reduzir o gasto de verbas públicas com tratamentos para diagnósticos avançados. Esta mudança de atitude possibilita que a detecção precoce não seja vista mais como ameaça, mas como o melhor caminho para a saúde

Ongoing research in the fields of genetics and biotechnology hold the promise of improved diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases, and potentially the development of individually tailored pharmaceuticals and gene therapies. Difficulty, however, arises in determining how these services are to be evaluated and integrated equitably into public health care systems such as Canada's. The current context is one of increasing fiscal restraint on the part of governments, limited financial resources being dedicated to health care, and rising costs for new health care services and technologies. This has led to increasing public debate in the last few years about how to reform public health care, and whether we should prohibit, permit or perhaps even encourage private purchase of health care services. In Canada, some of these concerns have crystallized around the issue of gene patents and commercial genetic testing, in particular as illustrated by the case of Myriad Genetics' patented BRACAnalysis test for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. While most Canadians who currently access genetic services do so through the public health care system, for those with the means, private purchase is becoming an option. This situation raises serious concerns - about justice in access to health care; about continued access to safe and reliable genetic testing supported by unbiased patient information; and about the broader effects of commercialization for ongoing research and the Canadian public health care system. Commercial genetic testing presents a challenge to health care professionals, policy analysts, and academics concerned with the social, ethical and policy implications of new genetic technologies. Using the Myriad case as an exemplar, tools from moral philosophy, the social sciences, and health policy and law will be brought to bear on the larger issues of how as a society we should regulate commercial research and product development, and more coherently decide which services to cover under public health insurance and which to leave to private purchase. Generally, the thesis is concerned with the question of "how best to bring capital, morality, and knowledge into a productive and ethical relationship" (Rabinow 1999, 20).

Ongoing research in the fields of genetics and biotechnology hold the promise of improved diagnosis and treatment of genetic diseases, and potentially the development of individually tailored pharmaceuticals and gene therapies. Difficulty, however, arises in determining how these services are to be evaluated and integrated equitably into public health care systems such as Canada's. The current context is one of increasing fiscal restraint on the part of governments, limited financial resources being dedicated to health care, and rising costs for new health care services and technologies. This has led to increasing public debate in the last few years about how to reform public health care, and whether we should prohibit, permit or perhaps even encourage private purchase of health care services. In Canada, some of these concerns have crystallized around the issue of gene patents and commercial genetic testing, in particular as illustrated by the case of Myriad Genetics' patented BRACAnalysis test for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. While most Canadians who currently access genetic services do so through the public health care system, for those with the means, private purchase is becoming an option. This situation raises serious concerns - about justice in access to health care; about continued access to safe and reliable genetic testing supported by unbiased patient information; and about the broader effects of commercialization for ongoing research and the Canadian public health care system. Commercial genetic testing presents a challenge to health care professionals, policy analysts, and academics concerned with the social, ethical and policy implications of new genetic technologies. Using the Myriad case as an exemplar, tools from moral philosophy, the social sciences, and health policy and law will be brought to bear on the larger issues of how as a society we should regulate commercial research and product development, and more coherently decide which services to cover under public health insurance and which to leave to private purchase. Generally, the thesis is concerned with the question of "how best to bring capital, morality, and knowledge into a productive and ethical relationship" (Rabinow 1999, 20). / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate