This thesis describes the excavations conducted at the Hatzic Rock site (DgRn-23) during 1990 and 1991 and describes the analysis of structural remains and artifacts. The site is located in the Fraser River valley and contains three occupation zones al l dating to the Charles Culture (ca. 4500-4700 BP). Structural remains were shown to possess similarities with ethnohistoric shed-roof and pithouse dwellings from the area. The structure was also found to possess similarities with a Charles Culture structure from the Maurer site (DhRk8) and a proto-historic structure from the McCallum site (DhRk-2). The observed similarities suggest continuity in structure design from the Charles Culture to the ethnohistoric period, however, a lack of clarity in the Hatzic data and poor comparative data detracts from this hypothesis. The analysis of artifacts from the Hatzic Rock site indicated differences between the three occupation zones were minor with the exception of occupation zone III. Occupation zone III contains a high proportion of stemmed projectile point classes and pebble tools. Anvil stones are absent in occupation zone III and pebble flake tool proportions are lower than in occupation zones I and II. The comparison of the Hatzic Rock site artifact assemblage to other Charles Culture assemblages indicates core and pebble tool proportions are much higher at the Hatzic Rock site. Similarly, the Hatzic Rock site artifact assemblage contains a high proportion of utilized flakes in relation to other Charles Culture sites. Retouched flake tools and formed unifaces were shown to be proportionately less represented at the Hatzic Rock site than at other Charles Culture sites. Differences in site function, location and age are thought to account for the differences between artifact assemblages.

This thesis describes the excavations conducted at the Hatzic Rock site (DgRn-23) during 1990 and 1991 and describes the analysis of structural remains and artifacts. The site is located in the Fraser River valley and contains three occupation zones al l dating to the Charles Culture (ca. 4500-4700 BP). Structural remains were shown to possess similarities with ethnohistoric shed-roof and pithouse dwellings from the area. The structure was also found to possess similarities with a Charles Culture structure from the Maurer site (DhRk8) and a proto-historic structure from the McCallum site (DhRk-2). The observed similarities suggest continuity in structure design from the Charles Culture to the ethnohistoric period, however, a lack of clarity in the Hatzic data and poor comparative data detracts from this hypothesis. The analysis of artifacts from the Hatzic Rock site indicated differences between the three occupation zones were minor with the exception of occupation zone III. Occupation zone III contains a high proportion of stemmed projectile point classes and pebble tools. Anvil stones are absent in occupation zone III and pebble flake tool proportions are lower than in occupation zones I and II. The comparison of the Hatzic Rock site artifact assemblage to other Charles Culture assemblages indicates core and pebble tool proportions are much higher at the Hatzic Rock site. Similarly, the Hatzic Rock site artifact assemblage contains a high proportion of utilized flakes in relation to other Charles Culture sites. Retouched flake tools and formed unifaces were shown to be proportionately less represented at the Hatzic Rock site than at other Charles Culture sites. Differences in site function, location and age are thought to account for the differences between artifact assemblages. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis provides a model for understanding how social classes arose in the Gulf of Georgia area. This model distinguishes how social status in rank and a class societies are manifested and maintained in non-state, kin-based societies, drawing mainly from ethnographic descriptions. The relationship between the living and the dead for making status claims in both rank and class societies makes the archaeological study of mortuary ritual important for investigating these relationships. I propose that burial mounds and cairns, which were prominent in the region from 1500 to 1000 years ago, reflect a time when status differentiation was defined mainly through social rank. Following this period, when all forms of below-ground burials cease and above-ground graves become the dominant form of mortuary practice, I propose that the historically recorded pattern of social class emerged. Archaeological investigations of the burial mounds and cairns at the Scowlitz site have provided the first fully reported instances of mound and cairn burials in this region. Using less well reported data from over 150 additional burial mounds and cairns reported from other sites in the region, evidence for the nature of status differentiation sought out. Patterns in the burial record are investigated through discussing variation within classes of burials, demography and deposition, spatial patterning, grave goods, and temporal variation. These patterns and changes are then discussed within the context of the larger culture history of the region, suggesting that the late Marpole or Garrison sub-phase may be defined as ending around 1000 BP with the cessation of below-ground burial practices. The general patterns observed in mound and cairn burials and the changes in mortuary ritual subsequent to their being built generally support the idea of a shift from a rank to a class society. The thesis provides a basis for further investigation of questions of social status and inequality in the Gulf of Georgia region.

This thesis provides a model for understanding how social classes arose in the Gulf of Georgia area. This model distinguishes how social status in rank and a class societies are manifested and maintained in non-state, kin-based societies, drawing mainly from ethnographic descriptions. The relationship between the living and the dead for making status claims in both rank and class societies makes the archaeological study of mortuary ritual important for investigating these relationships. I propose that burial mounds and cairns, which were prominent in the region from 1500 to 1000 years ago, reflect a time when status differentiation was defined mainly through social rank. Following this period, when all forms of below-ground burials cease and above-ground graves become the dominant form of mortuary practice, I propose that the historically recorded pattern of social class emerged. Archaeological investigations of the burial mounds and cairns at the Scowlitz site have provided the first fully reported instances of mound and cairn burials in this region. Using less well reported data from over 150 additional burial mounds and cairns reported from other sites in the region, evidence for the nature of status differentiation sought out. Patterns in the burial record are investigated through discussing variation within classes of burials, demography and deposition, spatial patterning, grave goods, and temporal variation. These patterns and changes are then discussed within the context of the larger culture history of the region, suggesting that the late Marpole or Garrison sub-phase may be defined as ending around 1000 BP with the cessation of below-ground burial practices. The general patterns observed in mound and cairn burials and the changes in mortuary ritual subsequent to their being built generally support the idea of a shift from a rank to a class society. The thesis provides a basis for further investigation of questions of social status and inequality in the Gulf of Georgia region. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

Professional archaeologists firmly control the prehistory of British Columbia (more commonly referred to today as "pre-contact" history). This has been the case since Dr. Charles E. Borden, a German professor at the University of British Columbia, professionalized the archaeological discipline between 1945 and 1960. The purpose of this paper is to critically examine and explain the process by which this monopolization occurred, and to suggest the massive ramifications that have followed. Relevant approaches to the history of archaeology are reviewed, and a "contextual" strategy is adopted as the best way to unravel, but preserve, the richness of the local history of archaeology in B.C. A mixture of narrative and analytical style is employed in explaining the rise Borden and professional archaeology in the 1950s. It is argued that Borden produced knowledge by drawing on an existing network of North American archaeology to create, and substantiate, his authoritative position. In the context of archaeological site destruction, during the 1950s, Borden was able to pull unrelated members of the B.C. populous to his cause, including provincial officials, through the passing of the "Archaeological and Historic Sites Protection Act," in 1960. Amateur archaeologists and Aboriginal people lacked the means to amass the powerful alliances that Borden did, and therefore amateurs and Natives were unable to offer a persuasive alternative to Borden's authority. It is concluded that because of the professional encapsulation of B.C. archaeology, we, as non-specialists, have to put our faith in archaeologists, and assume that the knowledge they produce is truthful and valid It is suggested that professional archaeologists have joined other human scientists in a rapidly spiralling scientification of humanity. This is significant because specialists inform the State about who we are as citizens, and impose identities on us which partly dicate how the State regulates our access to resources. The example of Natives in B.C., who have recently appropriated professional archaeology to their own cause of settling land-claim disputes, is offered to show how alienated components of our identities can be returned to us through political action.

Professional archaeologists firmly control the prehistory of British Columbia (more commonly referred to today as "pre-contact" history). This has been the case since Dr. Charles E. Borden, a German professor at the University of British Columbia, professionalized the archaeological discipline between 1945 and 1960. The purpose of this paper is to critically examine and explain the process by which this monopolization occurred, and to suggest the massive ramifications that have followed. Relevant approaches to the history of archaeology are reviewed, and a "contextual" strategy is adopted as the best way to unravel, but preserve, the richness of the local history of archaeology in B.C. A mixture of narrative and analytical style is employed in explaining the rise Borden and professional archaeology in the 1950s. It is argued that Borden produced knowledge by drawing on an existing network of North American archaeology to create, and substantiate, his authoritative position. In the context of archaeological site destruction, during the 1950s, Borden was able to pull unrelated members of the B.C. populous to his cause, including provincial officials, through the passing of the "Archaeological and Historic Sites Protection Act," in 1960. Amateur archaeologists and Aboriginal people lacked the means to amass the powerful alliances that Borden did, and therefore amateurs and Natives were unable to offer a persuasive alternative to Borden's authority. It is concluded that because of the professional encapsulation of B.C. archaeology, we, as non-specialists, have to put our faith in archaeologists, and assume that the knowledge they produce is truthful and valid It is suggested that professional archaeologists have joined other human scientists in a rapidly spiralling scientification of humanity. This is significant because specialists inform the State about who we are as citizens, and impose identities on us which partly dicate how the State regulates our access to resources. The example of Natives in B.C., who have recently appropriated professional archaeology to their own cause of settling land-claim disputes, is offered to show how alienated components of our identities can be returned to us through political action. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

This thesis provides an analysis of aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management in British Columbia and explores the potential of co-operative arrangements for the development of a more inclusive management regime. The objectives of the thesis are (i) to investigate the role of First Nations in the development of archaeology and archaeological resource management, (ii) to compare aboriginal community-based heritage management initiatives in B.C. with those operating within the Yukon and Northwest Territories and the U.S., (iii) to develop an aboriginal involvement framework to analyze aboriginal participation in archaeological resource management in B.C., and (iv) to assess the opportunities and constraints to increased aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management in B.C. Preliminary chapters outline the historical, legislative, and theoretical contexts for this study. Relevant literature is reviewed to provide a discussion of the development of archaeology and its effects on aboriginal people. The creation of a management ethic for archaeology is presented together with the nature of aboriginal participation in the management process. Secondly, literature pertaining to aboriginal involvement in resource management is surveyed to provide a context for analyzing aboriginal participation in archaeological resource management. From this review an aboriginal involvement framework is developed. Based on the themes discussed in preceding chapters and the proposed framework, six key concepts of aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management are identified to provide structure for an analysis of aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management in B.C. Next, in case study format, the Sto:lo Nation's approach to heritage management is analyzed using the key concepts distilled from the framework. The Sto:lo Nation's experience with managing archaeology is followed by a discussion of the provincial approach to archaeological resource management. The contrasting nature of both the Sto:lo Nation's and the Province's approaches to archaeological resource management is discussed and the difficulties inherent in developing a more inclusive management regime are highlighted. Finally, a set of opportunities and constraints to the development of a co-operative approach to archaeological resource management is outlined. This set is derived both from the events and literature discussed in the previous chapters as well as the results of the case study investigation. A pilot project for the co-operative management of archaeological resources is suggested and the benefits of such an approach are discussed. The thesis closes with the presentation of conditions to facilitate the development of co-operative management of archaeological resources in B.C.

This study is designed to investigate patterns of lithic technological variability in relation to settlement strategies that were employed by late prehistoric inhabitants of central and southern regions of interior British Columbia. The research contributes to current archaeological method through an experimental program of stone tool manufacture, and also to current understanding of Interior Plateau prehistory, through a multiregiohal analysis of technological variability. The first stage of the study involves conducting a controlled experiment, to determine the degree to which lithic debitage can be used to predict stages of chipped stone tool manufacture, and to devise an efficient means of classifying debitage into general reduction stages. The experiment is unique in providing control over the precise sequential removal of flakes, and also in examining quantitative variability in debitage that have been produced as the by-products of the manufacture of several tools and cores. The result of the experimental program is the formulation of a debitage classification that classifies flakes into early, middle or late reduction stages, and also into bifacial and bipolar reduction types. The archaeological analyses in the second major stage of the research use the debitage reduction stage classification and the occurrence of various lithic tools to examine the nature of interassemblage variability across the 38 sites from four regions of the Interior Plateau. A total of 14,541 flakes, 164 cores and 861 tools from the Eagle Lake, Mouth of the Chilcotin, Lillooet and Hat Creek regions are analyzed, using multivariate and bivariate quantitative methods. Three hypotheses relevant to lithic technology and hunter- gatherer archaeology are evaluated in this stage of the study. The analyses first employ the experimental debitage classification to obtain interpretable patterns of inter-assemblage similarities and differences. Multivariate analysis shows that several kinds of sites defined on the basis of features can be grouped by their predominance of early/core reduction, middle/wide ranging reduction, and late/ maintenance reduction debitage. The first formal hypothesis tested is that obsidian and chert raw materials should evidence patterns of conservation and economizing behavior by virtue of their geological scarcity in relation to vitreous basalt raw material. A series of chi-square tests demonstrates that debitage frequencies by reduction stage are proportionately equal for these three raw materials in all but the Mouth of the Chilcotin region. In all regions, except Lillooet where tool sample sizes are too small for reliable testing, tool sizes and scar counts show no significant difference attributable to raw materials. A slight trend is noted for chert tools to be larger and simpler than vitreous basalt or obsidian tools. A set of bivariate graphs demonstrates that while lithic raw materials may be reduced in highly similar manners, one raw material may have served to replace another. The second hypothesis, that tool curation and maintenance strongly affects assemblage composition, is first tested by examining tool assemblage measures that have been suggested by recent lithic technological models. Assemblages are highly variable with respect to the numbers of tools left at sites in relation to the intensity of tool maintenance that occurred at sites. The third hypothesis tested is that a set of site occupation purposes can be reliably predicted on the basis of debitage reduction stages and a functional tool classification. Using multiple discriminant analysis, house-pit sites are accurately predicted at an 80% rate, and lithic scatters without features are accurately predicted at a rate of 60%. Lithic scatters with housepits achieve 86% correct classification; lithic scatters with cachepits are correctly classified at a rate of 75%; and lithic scatters with fire-cracked rock are accurately predicted 80% of the time. The results of this analysis are further strengthened by removing an ambiguous assemblage from consideration. The most significant findings of the multiregional analyses are those of definite tool cuiration patterns as evidenced in the raw material analysis, and the occupation span inferences of the tool maintenance analysis. Overall, it has been demonstrated that an experimentally obtained stage classification of debitage enables the derivation of behavioral inferences that could not be currently obtained by other means. In its multiregional perspective, this study has shown that processes of lithic assemblage formation are largely independent of regional provenience and more dependent on settlement purpose. Overall, the greatest determinant of assemblage variability is inferred to be site occupation span. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis provides an analysis of aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management in British Columbia and explores the potential of co-operative arrangements for the development of a more inclusive management regime. The objectives of the thesis are (i) to investigate the role of First Nations in the development of archaeology and archaeological resource management, (ii) to compare aboriginal community-based heritage management initiatives in B.C. with those operating within the Yukon and Northwest Territories and the U.S., (iii) to develop an aboriginal involvement framework to analyze aboriginal participation in archaeological resource management in B.C., and (iv) to assess the opportunities and constraints to increased aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management in B.C. Preliminary chapters outline the historical, legislative, and theoretical contexts for this study. Relevant literature is reviewed to provide a discussion of the development of archaeology and its effects on aboriginal people. The creation of a management ethic for archaeology is presented together with the nature of aboriginal participation in the management process. Secondly, literature pertaining to aboriginal involvement in resource management is surveyed to provide a context for analyzing aboriginal participation in archaeological resource management. From this review an aboriginal involvement framework is developed. Based on the themes discussed in preceding chapters and the proposed framework, six key concepts of aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management are identified to provide structure for an analysis of aboriginal involvement in archaeological resource management in B.C. Next, in case study format, the Sto:lo Nation's approach to heritage management is analyzed using the key concepts distilled from the framework. The Sto:lo Nation's experience with managing archaeology is followed by a discussion of the provincial approach to archaeological resource management. The contrasting nature of both the Sto:lo Nation's and the Province's approaches to archaeological resource management is discussed and the difficulties inherent in developing a more inclusive management regime are highlighted. Finally, a set of opportunities and constraints to the development of a co-operative approach to archaeological resource management is outlined. This set is derived both from the events and literature discussed in the previous chapters as well as the results of the case study investigation. A pilot project for the co-operative management of archaeological resources is suggested and the benefits of such an approach are discussed. The thesis closes with the presentation of conditions to facilitate the development of co-operative management of archaeological resources in B.C. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

This dissertation is concerned with the analysis of a late portion of the Crescent Beach shell midden (DgRr 1 ) situated on Boundary Bay in the southern Fraser River Delta of British Columbia. The basic objectives of this study are the recovery and analysis of shell midden layers and their constituents to obtain information on Coast Salish subsistence activities, and to initiate a better understanding of shell midden formation. The cultural history of the Strait of Georgia region is viewed as a 5,000 year long Tradition of Coast Salish Cultures. To place the archaeological materials from Crescent Beach in their proper cultural ecological perspective, the environmental, ethnographic and archaeological setting of the site and surrounding region is examined. The historic ecological communities of Boundary Bay are reconstructed and the abundance and availability of species of economic value determined. Ethnographic Coast Salish Culture and economic strategies are examined and possible settlement patterns reconstructed for Boundary Bay. To assist in identifying subsistence activities at Crescent Beach a shell midden model is presented outlining the systemic and archaeological transformation processes responsible for the site's development. In light of this model and the above environmental and ethnographic data the most probable seasons of site occupation are suggested. Archaeological data were recovered by the hand trowel excavation of a block of shell midden layers and the matrix, provenienced within a 0.25 m2 unit, was waterscreened through a 1.45 mm mesh screen. In total some 24 m3 of shell midden weighing 28.8 t were excavated. Recove of midden constituents was accomplished through a multiple tier sampling system. Radiocarbon estimates of 1350 to 480 B.P., place the 31 layers recovered from Crescent Beach in the Developed Coast Salish Culture. Seasonality dating of shellfish growth patterns and analysis of layer constituents indicate the site was a shellfish and herring harvesting camp occupied in February and March. Layers recovered from Crescent Beach reflect shellfish and herring processing (steaming, sorting, refuse discard, and meat preservation) as well as the immediate consumption of other foods. Artifacts indicate the manufacture, mostly in bone and antler, of tools used in fishing, woodworking and hide processing, the latter two activities conducted at the site. Procurement of shellfish, crab and most fish species probably took place along the 3 km stretch of beach south of the site where present ecological communities contain identical resources as found in the site. Petroglyphs and a fort-lookout site also attest to the use of this area. Shellfish were the most common faunal remain, followed by a much lesser quantity of fish, waterfowl and some large mammals. In addition to the Crescent Beach site, the Deep Bay site (DiSe 7) and Shoal Bay site (DcRt 1) may also be seasonal shellfish and herring harvesting camps, and it is suggested that Whalen II (DfRs 3) and the Locarno Beach site (DhRt 6) may have had similar uses. This evidence and the fact additional seasonal sites dating to the Locarno Beach Culture have been identified indicates the Proto-Coast Salish had a specialized economic system by 3,500 B.P. and possibly earlier. Indications of social ranking are also evident by this time. The approach followed in this study indicates accurate information on economic strategies may be obtained from shell middens. Where research is interested primarily in seasonality, settlement pattern and subsistence the controlled excavation of small blocks of shell midden layers, fine mesh water screening, and analysis of small numbers of shell samples will be adequate. This has important implications for the study and resource management of the shell middens of the Strait of Georgia region. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate