The current study examined the role of context sensitive emotional responding in normal and pathological adjustment to loss among conjugally bereaved persons later in bereavement. We specifically focused on investigating how participants with complicated grief (CG) emotionally responded in comparison to a non-pathological bereaved group. We comprehensively measured the emotional responding behaviors (i.e., facial displays of emotion and head movements) of participants as they watched an evocatively sad or neutral film and also examined their emotion experience via self-report. We anticipated that CG participants would show and report less emotional context-sensitivity (i.e., less sadness and more negative emotions other than sadness) than non-pathological bereaved participants in the sad condition. Our findings demonstrate differences in both the emotional expression and emotional experience of the CG group compared with the non-pathological bereaved group in the context of a sad film. Our findings both support and extend our predictions. While overall participants more commonly expressed the prototypical sadness expressions in the sad condition than the neutral condition, a number of notable interaction effects emerged. Specifically, non-pathological bereaved participants were significantly more likely to express sadness expressions that involved the orbicular oculi muscles (i.e., AU 6 or the "cheek raiser"), the outer muscles that orbit the eyes, than CG participants in the sad condition. Research evidences how the orbicular oculi muscles are associated with "genuine" or more intense expressions of happiness and the current study suggests that the orbicular oculi muscles also distinguish between sadness expressions. In addition, while both groups were more likely to report feeling greater sadness in the sad condition than the neutral condition, CG participants were more likely to feel disgust and anger than non-pathological bereaved participants in the sad condition, pointing to unique pattern of context insensitive emotional responding. We found that CG is "complicated" in part due to its high co-morbidity rates with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). While controlling for the effects of MDD and PTSD did not significantly change our results, the high co-morbidity rate of CG with MDD (74%) and PTSD (68%) begs us to consider the pan-diagnostic nature of chronic grief-related pathology. In sum, the current study highlights grief-related pathology as a distinct clinical problem and points to how emotion context-insensitivity importantly plays a role in the maintenance of grief-related problems.

The present research is a prospective follow-up study which investigates the neuropsychological test performance of children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and examines whether test performance and severity of childhood disruptive behaviors predict adult psychiatric status and functioning in major domains (educational, social, and occupational). Participants were 100 middle-class, White boys (mean age = 9) of average intelligence diagnosed with ADHD without comorbid conduct disorder (CD) diagnoses. Childhood predictors were teacher behavioral ratings and performance on a variety of neuropsychological tests. Participants were later assessed at mean age 25 by clinicians blind to childhood status. Linear and logistic regression analyses were used to determine the impact of childhood predictor variables on adult outcome. Results showed no significant impairment on measures of neuropsychological functioning, nor was neuropsychological test performance generally correlated with severity of disruptive behaviors. ADHD boys with low ratings of conduct disorder behaviors (not at all, just a little) demonstrated lower verbal ability than those without CD behaviors. Severity of childhood CD behaviors emerged as the most consistent predictor of adult functioning and prevalence of psychiatric disorders. Measures of working memory and attention (Working Memory Index and Freedom from Distractibility Factor of the WISC-R) inconsistently predicted functioning in some areas, although this may reflect the well-known relationship between childhood IQ and later adult functioning. Taken together, the findings suggest that in boys with ADHD who are of average intelligence and have intact neuropsychological functioning, even low levels of CD behaviors are associated with poor prognosis in adulthood.

Subthreshold symptoms of depression (defined as symptoms that do not meet full criteria for the disorder) are a significant concern, associated with a range of behavioral and emotional problems, raising the risk of adolescents developing more severe depression later. Yet research on subthreshold depression is lacking, and the relationship between affective and somatic symptom improvement has not been adequately studied. Prior research with adult samples lend credence to the hypothesis that symptoms of mood/motivation respond faster to psychotherapy (Rush, Beck, Kovacs, Weissenburger, and Hollon, 1982) than pharmacotherapy with the opposite response for vegetative symptoms such as sleep and appetite (DiMascio, Weissman, Prusoff, and Neu 1979). The current study was built upon prior research that found Interpersonal Psychotherapy Adolescent Skills Training (IPT-AST) to be an efficacious prevention intervention for adolescents with subthreshold depression, as compared to school counseling (Young, Mufson and Gallop, 2010). In this investigation, we sought to compare the trends in symptomatic improvement among 32 participants treated with IPT-AST over eight weeks. Clusters of mood/ motivation and vegetative symptoms were followed from baseline to the end of treatment. The results suggest that mood symptoms improved significantly before vegetative symptoms, within the first four weeks of preventive treatment. Significant improvement in vegetative symptoms was found to occur later between weeks 6 and 8. Thus adolescents receiving IPT-AST preventive treatment demonstrated faster reduction in mood/motivation symptoms than vegetative symptoms. Analyses revealed that fewer participants were identified as having not improved on the mood/motivation cluster than on the vegetative cluster indicating a better response for adolescents with mood symptoms than vegetative symptoms. Although, no relationships in improvements in mood/motivation and vegetative clusters were found controlling for baseline mood/motivation and vegetative symptoms; positive associations were found between cluster variables (mood, vegetative and total depression) over time. Gender was also not found to moderate the relationship between improvement on mood and vegetative symptoms over time indicating no significant differences in the improvement between males and females. Overall, findings from the current investigation strengthen the results from previous studies regarding the timeline of symptom improvement with IPT-AST.

The current study examined the relationships between parental depression, offspring depression, and offspring temperament among 203 offspring at high or low-risk for depression. Offspring were followed over a 20-year study period. Two primary study aims were addressed. First, we sought to confirm that parental depression predicts offspring lifetime depression and offspring difficult temperament, and that offspring difficult temperament predicts offspring major depression, while adjusting for family effect. Second, we sought to examine the pathoplasty model of the relationship between temperament and psychopathology by examining how offspring difficult temperament affects qualitative features of major depression - specifically, frequency, severity, and duration. Results indicate that high-risk offspring have more difficult temperament and are four times more likely to have lifetime major depressive disorder (MDD) than low-risk offspring. In addition, offspring with a difficult temperament are twice as likely to have lifetime MDD than low-risk offspring. Results from aim 2 revealed that difficult temperament predicts greater frequency of lifetime MDEs, but not severity or duration. Finally, individual dimensions of temperament were uniquely associated with frequency, severity, and duration of major depressive episodes differentially across risk groups. Implications and future research directions are discussed.

In the recent wake of media reports of peer victimization and its deleterious effects, this study sought to create a personality profile of the individual who is able to resist social, personal and group pressures in order to help a victim of bullying behavior. This research is based on findings from a study by Dr. Elizabeth Midlarsky on rescuers and bystanders during the Holocaust (Midlarsky, Fagin-Jones and Nemeroff, 2006). The present study examined the differences in personality variables of individuals who were either rescuers or bystanders in a peer bullying situation that occurred in the virtual medium of Second Life. Additionally, due to the novel nature of this experimental medium, this study also examined the utility of Second Life as a mechanism for creating realistic psychological experiences. Independent variables included the following personality variables: locus of control, social responsibility, altruism, morality, autonomy, tolerance, risk taking, and empathy, and the participant's experience in the virtual medium was assessed by: realism of the scenario, realism of the world and immersion. The dependent variable was whether or not the participant intervened in the animated scenario by helping the victim. This study featured a unique experimental design that utilized a virtual experimental space to examine a psychological question. After completing pre-test test measures of personality factors, participants were given a cover story that asked them to explore a virtual university campus. Immediately following the participant's response, post-test questions assessed knowledge of the bystander effect, peer victimization experiences, and the experience of the participant in the virtual world. Debriefing sessions also ascertained personal reactions of each participant. Findings indicated that people reporting more immersion in the Second Life scenarios were more likely to intervene on behalf of the bullied person. In accordance with Midlarsky, Fagin-Jones and Nemeroff (2006), the rescuers in this study exhibited higher levels of empathy when compared to bystanders. However, no significant differences were found for other personality correlates of altruism. Instead, relationships were found among participants who intervened in the animated scenario and those who reported finding the virtual scenario a realistic representation of a peer victimization incident. Several important differences between the Midlarsky, Fagin-Jones and Nemeroff (2006) studies and this study account for the differential results. Most notable is that this study is a one-time reaction to an event in a virtual world which presented only a possible emotional risk to the rescuers and victims. On the other hand, Holocaust rescuers typically risked their lives continually, over an extended time period. While the personality profiles of the bystanders and rescuers in a realistic, traumatizing incident was not ascertained, the significant effect of empathy accords with the existing body of altruism research.

The current study explores the association between expressive flexibility, attachment, interpersonal dependency, and complicated grief among a sample of middle-aged bereaved adults. A relatedness framework, which encompasses specific and more generalized relational interpersonal behaviors, was utilized to broaden the frame of inquiry. This study represents one of the first systematic efforts to examine conjointly attachment and dependency behaviors in a middle-aged bereaved population. It is also one of the first empirical explorations of the association between dependency and expressive flexibility. The Experiences in Close Relationships - Revised questionnaire (ECR-R; Fraley, Waller, and Brennan, 2000) was employed to derive anxious and avoidant attachment schemas. Adaptive and maladaptive interpersonal dependence were measured utilizing the Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein and Languirand, 2003). Participants were asked to express, suppress, or behave normally to evocative images. Observer ratings of participants' responses were used to measure expressive enhancement and suppression ability. Results indicated a significant association between expressive flexibility factors, attachment, and complicated grief, and more notably a relationship between dependency and complicated grief. Results also revealed adaptive dependence (i.e., healthy dependency) as the strongest predictor of complicated grief, above and beyond attachment related anxiety and avoidance. The data also suggested that expressive enhancement ability moderates the relationship between healthy dependency and complicated grief, such that the interaction between low expressive enhancement ability and low healthy dependence predict significantly increase the likelihood of complicated grief. Taken together, the findings of this study suggest the importance of including expressive flexibility and dependency factors in understanding complicated grief. The clinical implications of these findings are also discussed.

The negative effects of trauma exposure on youth behavior and mental health has included internal disturbances that cause distress to the individual, as well as, externalizing behaviors that cause distress to others. Researchers have also argued that trauma exposure can have a positive impact on psychosocial development, in that it can lead people to align with others, rather than turn against them. In an effort to identify factors that might nullify the association between trauma exposure and subsequent negative consequences, this paper examines the relationship between trauma exposure and prosocial behavior in Sierra Leone, Togo, Burkina Faso and Liberia. Results indicate that total trauma exposure was negatively associated with prosocial behavior in Sierra Leone and Liberia, while the inverse relationship was found in Togo and Burkina Faso, where trauma exposure was shown to have a positive association with prosocial behavior. The effect of trauma exposure on prosocial behavior varied by gender in Togo; among girls, trauma exposure had a positive significant association with prosocial behavior, however it did not impact prosocial behavior among boys. Lastly, the negative impact of trauma exposure on prosocial behavior found in Sierra Leone is partially explained by the indirect effect of PTSD and depression. Results are discussed in the context of individual and environmental differences that promote risk or resilience. Limitations and future implications for research, and practice are discussed.

The transition into motherhood has long been conceptualized as a time of psychological upheaval. However, when examining rates of postpartum psychopathology, it appears that more women adapt well to this change than do not. In keeping with research in the fields of positive psychology and resilience, it appears that naturally occurring protective factors may aid a woman through this transition. This dissertation proposes the idea that qualities of mindfulness, while typically cultivated through training, may be naturally protective against psychopathology during times of adjustment and development. Specifically, this paper examines the transition from pregnancy into the postpartum period. I examine pregnant women's levels of mindful, momentary awareness and analyze how these levels predict the self-reported emotional experience of giving birth, as well as postpartum levels of anxiety and depression. Future directions and limitations are discussed.

A relationship between interpersonal functioning and depression has been suggested by theorists and empirical studies. However, there are a limited number of studies focusing specifically on the association between depression, interpersonal distress, and interpersonal problems as assessed by the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems-32 (IIP-32). The present study investigates under-explored or overlooked aspects of the literature that outline this relationship. Initially, the study set out to examine interpersonal markers of depression in a sample of 170 individuals seeking psychoanalytic or psychodynamic treatment. A unique aspect of this study is that the examination of depression involved categorizing individuals as depressed based on either categorical Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Disorders (SCID) or severity measures Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD) and Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptamotology (QIDS). A correlation was found between depression severity (assessed by the HRSD and QIDS) and overall interpersonal distress and 6 of the 8 interpersonal problems. We further demonstrated that irrespective of the measure used to define depression, depressed individuals had greater overall interpersonal distress than non-depressed individuals. Depressed individuals also had significantly higher scores on several of the IIP subscales (too aggressive, too dependent, too caring, hard to be sociable, hard to be involved, and hard to be assertive). The gender analyses suggested that men had significantly more interpersonal distress than women and that men and women had significantly different scores on the hard to be supportive and hard to be involved subscales (scores were higher for men) as well as the too aggressive sub scale (scores were higher for women). Across our initial analyses we found that interpersonal distress also differed based on PD severity. Although both depression and PD severity were significantly associated with interpersonal distress, these independent variables did not interact. We attributed this to comorbidity between depression and Axis II pathology, correlation between measures and the fact that each variable had several levels. We therefore conducted secondary analyses by subdividing and recategorizing the sample into new groups based on both depression and Axis II diagnoses. Results revealed that individuals who were diagnosed with both depression and at least one PD had the greatest amount of interpersonal distress relative to those with one or neither of the disorders (depression or PD). When focusing on depression, gender, and interpersonal functioning, results indicated an absence of gender differences. Men and women with a comorbid personality disorder did not differ in interpersonal distress and had significantly greater interpersonal impairment than men or women who were solely depressed. Furthermore, solely depressed men and women did not differ in interpersonal distress. In terms of the subscale analyses the depressed group with comorbid Axis II pathology had greater distress related to a number of interpersonal problems: hard to be sociable, hard to be assertive, too aggressive, too dependent, hard to be involved, and too caring. There were several further group differences that were particularly salient. Depressed and non-depressed individuals (free of Axis II pathology) did not differ on any of the IIP subscales. However, the exclusively depressed group differed from the depressed group with PD on four subscales (hard to be sociable, hard to be assertive, too aggressive, and too dependent). Focusing solely on Axis II pathology, in the absence of depression, individuals with a PD and no depression had significantly more distress than individuals with no PD and no depression on several subscales (hard to be sociable, hard to be involved, too dependent, and hard to be assertive). Moreover, on these subscales, we saw that this PD group behaved similarly to the comorbid group (i.e. depressed with PD) as both differed from the healthiest group (i.e. non-clinically depressed without PD). However, the comorbid group had higher mean scores. These findings suggest that depression may not be associated with a pattern of interpersonal distress, however Axis II pathology might be. Although there is variability in group differences, what is consistent is that the comorbid group had greater interpersonal distress. For individuals who are depressed, the presence of Axis II pathology seems to increase the severity of interpersonal problems. Results from the analyses of the subscales comparing men and women provide further evidence that interpersonal functioning is most problematic in the context of comorbidity. A consistent finding when examining the group of depressed men is that men with PD had significantly greater interpersonal distress on all of the subscales related to social interaction and connection (i.e. hard to be involved, hard to be supportive, hard to be sociable, and hard to be assertive). Women with PD had significantly greater interpersonal distress related to being too aggressive than depressed men with PD. Furthermore, both depressed men and depressed women with PD had significantly greater distress than depressed women without PD on the too dependent subscale. In addition, the current study also found that individuals who over-reported their depressive severity relative to the clinician (defined as a higher score on the QIDS than on the HRSD) had significantly greater odds of having a Cluster B personality disorder, moderate interpersonal distress, and moderate or severe anxiety. In summary, the initial difference between depressed and non-depressed individuals and depressed men and women in terms of overall and specific interpersonal distress became more nuanced when Axis II pathology was considered. Results consistently suggest that interpersonal distress is most exacerbated by comorbidity. The study concludes with a discussion of study limitations and directions for future research.

Individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) are prone to intense emotional reactions and dysfunctional interpersonal relationships, which may be associated with disruptions in cognitive functioning. However, research comparing neurocognitive functioning in BPD compared to patients with comorbid disorders like MDD and healthy control groups has been inconclusive. This study was the first to directly measure BPD individuals' working memory capacities under stressful conditions, using an experimentally manipulated, in-vivo social stressor. The primary aims of this study were to investigate the impact of emotional distress on working memory performance in the context of a psychological stress procedure (Trier Social Stress Test) and to determine whether emotion-induced working memory disruption was stronger for participants with BPD (n = 60) than for participants with MDD (n = 30) or healthy controls (n = 21). Results showed that emotional distress positively predicted working memory errors in the sample overall, with self-reported feelings of confusion and vigor accounting for this relationship. However, there were no basic working memory differences between BPD participants, MDD participants, and controls. BPD participants were also not more likely to have impairments in working memory as a consequence of emotional distress compared to participants with MDD. Participants with BPD were more likely to have had a history of self-injurious behavior, showed poorer psychosocial functioning, and showed higher levels of depression, anxiety, aggression, and impulsivity. When the effects of emotional distress were controlled for, participants with BPD were shown to have superior working memory performance, while MDD participants were shown to have poorer working memory performance, compared to the sample mean. Findings from the current study underscore the need to account for emotional distress when examining working memory in BPD and MDD groups. Mood fluctuations and emotional reactivity may play a larger role than pathophysiological factors in characterizing neurocognitive performance in these groups. These findings could point to a deficit in MDD, perhaps characterized by insufficient reactivity to the mobilizing effects of mild stress. Alternatively, BPD individuals' greater attunement and sensitivity to others' emotional states may paradoxically confer an advantage when pure attentiveness and concentration are called for. Future research should aim to identify psychological and neurocognitive strengths among individuals with BPD. Given the equivocal and complex findings on neurocognitive performance in BPD to date, more research is needed to develop a clear profile.