Past work has linked self-injurious behavior (SIB) to a history of traumatic experiences and to problems regulating affect. While this affect dysregulation is conceptualized as occurring at a biological (as well as a behavioral) level, relatively little is known about the biological mechanisms involved. The current study explored whether reactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to an interpersonal stressor mediated the relation between trauma and SIB in a sample of 178 18-21 year-old heterosexual dating couples. As predicted, both trauma experience and symptoms positively predicted SIB. While the mediating model was not supported, SIB was associated with an HPA axis response marked by heightened reactivity to interpersonal stress within the context of lower cortisol levels. Trauma symptoms and experience interacted with adult attachment security to predict HPA axis response in different ways for men and women, a compelling set of findings suggesting the importance of contextual factors in the study of trauma and HPA axis function. Future directions for the study of trauma, HPA axis reactivity, and SIB are discussed.

Chronic pain (CP) is a public health concern affecting 15-25% of the population (Brennan, Carr, & Cousins, 2007) and is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety, cognitive complaints and difficulties, and limitations in everyday life functioning (Lew et al., 2009; Menefee et al., 2000). Previous research has considered cognitive functioning in individuals with CP (Di Stefano & Radanov, 1995; Grigsby, Rosenberg, & Busenbark, 1995); however, little is known about disruptions on comprehensive computerized measures of attention, and the association of pain related psychological problems with attention dysfunction. The current study examined whether individuals with CP (N = 46) exhibit attention deficits relative to normative data and persons with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI; N = 46). The study also sought to determine whether psychological and pain-related symptoms (i.e., depression, anxiety, perceived psychosocial impairment, pain-related beliefs and behaviors) in individuals with CP are associated with attention functioning. Results indicated that CP and mTBI subjects performed significantly worse on the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA+Plus CPT) relative to normative data. Further, psychological symptoms in CP were significant predictors (p < .05) of attention performance on the IVA+Plus, accounting for 23.7% of the variance in the attention index. Pain-related factors were not predictive of attention functioning. The findings shed light on attention difficulties in CP relative to mTBI and normative data and help explain the relationship between psychological symptoms and attention functioning in CP.

There is limited research on ethnic minorities in psychotherapy, particularly with regard to the process of change. Most existing studies subscribe to a "uniformity myth" in which individual differences across and within minority groups are often masked or ignored because of an assumption of shared characteristics and experiences. The primary aim of this study was to address the gap in research on individual differences in psychotherapeutic change by analyzing a large sample of adult patients (N = 2,272) of varying ethnicity who received psychotherapy across various naturalistic settings. The treatment settings all participated in a national practice-research network, administering the same outcome measure (the Treatment Outcome Package) at regular intervals throughout treatment. I used latent class growth curve modeling to examine whether patients of a particular ethnicity (Caucasian, Hispanic, African American) had multiple depression and panic change trajectories over time. I then explored whether patient characteristics (e.g., age, gender, patient socioeconomic status) predicted membership in one or another trajectory group. Several different trajectories emerged for each ethnicity, and patterns of change in depression and panic symptoms were predicted by some patient socio-demographic variables. Taking the Hispanic group as an example, two classes emerged in the depression model; patients in one class had low symptoms at pretreatment and improved over time, while patients in the other group started with moderate symptoms and failed to improve over time. The odds of having low baseline symptoms and then responding to treatment were higher for patients who were married or who had higher income. In the panic model, two groups emerged with low panic symptoms at pretreatment, but these groups varied in treatment response with one group improving in treatment and the other worsening during treatment (this heterogeneity would have been masked with a one class analytic model). Also, patients who were younger or employed were more likely to be in the responding group than in the worsening group. Such knowledge of different change trajectories, as well as predictors of latent class membership, can help to identify individuals' change prognosis, which, in turn, can help to facilitate the development of sensitive and helpful interventions.

Rumination has been identified as a transdiagnostic risk factor associated with the development and maintenance of multiple psychological symptoms in children and adolescents. Additionally, a growing body of literature has linked individual differences in rumination to impairments of executive control, including difficulties associated with updating, inhibition, and shifting abilities. Yet, few studies have examined these neurocognitive correlates together in preadolescent children. The goal of the current study was to test competing model predictions regarding the unique relations between two forms of rumination, sadness and anger, and each executive function based on two theoretical frameworks, the attentional scope model and the multiple systems model. Differential associations between each form of rumination and each executive function were examined via multiple regression analyses. One hundred and fifty-nine children, aged 8-13, completed self-report measures of sadness and anger rumination as well as a battery of neurocognitive tasks assessing updating, inhibition, and shifting abilities. Results indicated that sadness rumination was associated with poorer updating and shifting abilities but unrelated to inhibition. Anger rumination was positively associated with updating abilities and not significantly associated with either shifting or inhibition. Together, these findings offer partial support for the attentional scope and multiple systems models for sadness rumination. Our finding that sadness and anger rumination were associated with different neurocognitive correlates highlights the importance of differentiating between sadness and anger rumination. These findings also suggest that current conceptual models of rumination may not provide an adequate account of neurocognitive correlates of anger rumination. This study adds to the limited extant literature examining associations between rumination and executive functions in preadolescent children. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2018. / November 6, 2018. / Includes bibliographical references. / Janet A. Kistner, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Michael J. Kofler, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Heather A. Flynn, University Representative; Thomas E. Joiner, Jr., Committee Member; Richard K. Wagner, Committee Member.

Understanding and assessing the needs of Emergency Medical Service (EMS) personnel and other first responders is crucial for providing these individuals with the resources needed within their community. The literature discusses how EMS personnel are at risk for psychological impairment due to routine exposure to traumatic events and occupational stressors within EMS organizations. Additionally, the research has supported the importance of positive coping abilities, organizational belongingness, and social support within the lives of EMS personnel to enable them to resiliently handle the occupational stress of their job. This study investigated the occupational needs of EMS providers to determine if they are receiving resources within their organization to cope with occupational stressors. Participants for this study comprised (n=153) paramedics and fire-fighters from the Tidewater EMS Council organization. A needs assessment was conducted to explore correlations between quality of life, resiliency, years of service, level of education, burnout, secondary traumatic stress, interpersonal support, positive and negative religious coping, and the occupational needs of EMS personnel. The results revealed that burnout (r=4.27**) and secondary traumatic stress (r.215*) were important factors for determining occupational turnover among EMS personnel. Furthermore, EMS providers reported occupational needs such as easier access to mental health, improved staff relations, adequate staffing, and improved shift hours are needed within their organization. Future research should explore differences in occupational needs with EMS providers among EMS organizations in metropolitan and rural communities. Keywords: Emergency Medical Services (EMS), Burnout, Occupational Stress, Traumatic Critical Incidents

Females who are perpetrators of sexual offenses are an understudied population. Due to societies’ failure to recognize that female perpetrators exist and to recognize their abuse when it occurs, sexual abuse completed by females often goes unreported. As a result, females engaging in sexual offenses, particularly pedophilia, is seen as a rare occurrence. However, research suggests that the actual rate of female pedophilic behavior is occurring at a rate three-four times higher than what is actually reported (Cortoni, Babchishin, & Rat, 2017). This study used anonymous data from 2,828 adult females in the IRB approved study [127810-11] Effects of Recalled Family Attitudes and Childhood Sexual Experiences on Adult Sexual Attitudes and Adjustment. A total of 45 variables were analyzed to determine predictors of adult females having sexual activity of any kind with underage partners. The strongest predictor of engaging in sexual activity of any kind with underage partners as an adult was participating in sexual activity of any kind with a partner under the age of 18 while also being under the age of 18. Twelve variables were statistically significant predictors of females who had underage male partners, but only two were also clinically significant. Females who later chose underage male partners had early sexual experiences with male partners while they were under the age of 18 and shared a bed for sleeping with a younger male partner more than four years younger than them while they were under the age of 18. Nine variables were statistically significant predictors of females who had underage female partners, but only one was also clinically significant. Females who later chose underage female partners had early sexual experiences with female partners while they were under the age of 18.

The purpose of the study was, first, to document the prevalence of Study Bullying of Teachers (SBT) in the state of California. Second, the study investigated if the experience of SBT predicted an increase in burnout among teachers. This study utilized the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), a burnout scale with three dimensions (i.e., personal, work-related, and client-related). The study also used an SBT survey, which is a self-constructed survey based on previous studies. The SBT survey asked participants about their experience of SBT and how they reacted to being bullied. A total of 268 public school teachers in California participated in the study. The study found an 85.1% prevalence rate of SBT. Findings showed an increase in SBT predicted an increase in burnout across all three dimensions after controlling for the experiencing of being bullied by parents. The findings indicated verbal abuse and damaging teachers’ property had the most substantial effect on burnout. The results also showed in-person bullying predicted the increase in burnout but not online bullying.

Despite increasing evidence of the negative consequences of post-event processing (PEP) in social anxiety, there is limited research on interventions for PEP. The present study tested a brief cognitive intervention compared to a brief rest condition among those with varying levels of social anxiety (N = 105). Participants were randomly assigned to either condition after giving an impromptu, videotaped speech. Four days later, they returned to complete a second videotaped impromptu speech. Anxiety, avoidance behaviors, and perceptions of speech performance were assessed multiple times throughout the study. Inconsistent with prediction, condition did not predict later anxiety, avoidance behaviors, or negative perceptions of the speech performance among those with high social anxiety. Also, there was a trend toward social anxiety predicting the mean level of linear change of anxiety in the expected direction. In addition, PEP and an alternative mediator tested (worry) did not account for the relationship between condition and change in anxiety. Those with high social anxiety demonstrated a clinically significant reduction in negative perceptions of performance. Finally, the effectiveness of different strategies to intervene on PEP between the sessions was investigated. Distracting with other thoughts, watching television, and suppressing thoughts were was marginally associated with PEP, after controlling for depression. In contrast, exercising or playing sports, trying to rationalize the thoughts, using the computer, and studying or working were not associated with PEP after controlling for depression. Findings suggest that a brief cognitive intervention for PEP may have short-term costs and necessitate multiple sessions to demonstrate effectiveness. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2015. / April 24, 2015. / Post-event processing, Rumination, Social anxiety / Includes bibliographical references. / Norman B. Schmidt, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce Thyer, University Representative; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Thomas Joiner, Committee Member; Christopher Schatschneider, Committee Member.

Early adulthood is a critical period for the development of alcohol use behavior. Many individuals mature out of drinking in their late 20's, but some continue to drink heavily, which is associated with problematic use later in life. One factor that may influence the progression into alcohol use is the personality dimension of sociability. Sociability affects the degree of exposure to peer drinking, which is a known risk factor for alcohol use, but also may influence preference for alcohol beyond its relationship with peer drinking. Research suggests that alcohol enhances the pleasure of social experiences, and the personality dimension of sociability may be influence sensitivity to the socially rewarding effects of alcohol. Sociability may confer further risk for heavy alcohol use through its association with approach motivation. Avoidance of negative alcohol-related consequences plays a role in the maturation out of drinking, and individuals who are higher in sociability may be less motivated to avoid negative consequences of alcohol use. The present study examined whether sociability predicted increased levels of alcohol use over time as well as whether sociability interacted with alcohol-related consequences to predict changes in use over time. Archival data from the Minnesota Twin Family Study was used for the present study. Participants (N = 206) were recruited at age 17 and two follow-up assessments were conducted at 3-year intervals. Repeated Measures ANCOVAs were used to examine the effects of sociability, peer alcohol use, and alcohol-related consequences on changes in alcohol use across the three time points. Sociability was not related to changes in alcohol use over time. Interestingly, sociability was negatively associated with alcohol use at the second follow-up assessment. These results highlight the need for further research to clarify the relationship between sociability and alcohol use. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester 2015. / April 29, 2015. / Alcohol, Consequences, Peers, Sociability / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeanette Taylor, Professor Directing Thesis; Jesse Cougle, Committee Member; Arielle Borovsky, Committee Member.

Individuals with Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) have a tendency to interpret ambiguous information in a negative or threatening manner (Buhlmann, McNally, Wilhelm, & Florin, 2002a; Clerkin & Teachman, 2008). Computerized interpretation bias modification (IBM) training programs have been developed to train individuals with anxiety and mood disorders to endorse positive interpretations in favor of characteristic negative interpretations, subsequently resulting in a reduction of disorder-specific symptoms (e.g., Beard & Amir, 2008; Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000). The current study sought to determine the efficacy of IBM in a population of individuals with BDD symptoms (N = 40, 33 of which met full diagnostic criteria for BDD). Participants were randomly assigned to receive four sessions of either: IBM training designed to target evaluation and appearance-related interpretation biases, or Placebo Control (PC) training. Analyses revealed that the IBM condition experienced a substantial reduction in both negative BDD-related interpretation biases and BDD symptoms following training, relative to those in the PC condition. Mediation analyses indicated that changes in BDD-related interpretation biases fully mediated the effect of condition on symptom severity. Compared to the PC condition, the IBM group also reported greater reductions in fear and urge to check in response to an in vivo task in which their picture was taken. Lastly, IBM led to greater reductions in certain social anxiety symptoms (e.g., social avoidance) compared to the PC condition. The pattern of results remained similar at a 1-month follow-up assessment, though effects for symptoms were attenuated, possibly due to low power and a floor effect. The current study provides preliminary support for the efficacy of IBM for BDD symptoms. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Psychology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2015. / March 24, 2015. / Body Dymorphic Disorder, Cognitive bias modification, In vivo stressor, Multi-session, Social anxiety, Treatment / Includes bibliographical references. / Jesse R. Cougle, Professor Directing Thesis; Norman B. Schmidt, Committee Member; James K. McNulty, Committee Member.