Cognitive control refers to the brain's ability to control attention and other cognitive functions in the service of intention-driven behaviors; moreover, it is an essential aspect in cognition. Cognitive control is commonly evaluated through the so-called conflict adaptation effect, which is revealed through trial-to-trial changes in performance after experiencing cognitive conflict. The conflict monitoring theory is a prominent theory intended to describe conflict adaptation and explain how cognitive control might be engaged in the face of conflict. A passive carryover account, originally aimed at explaining task switching and based on parallel distributed processing models, may represent a superior alternative to the conflict monitoring account. In the carryover account, passive inertia of the cognitive control state explains the trial-to-trial modulation of conflict effects. One problem with conflict adaptation is that the typical paradigms used to create conflict adaptation often include trial-to-trial repetitions that mimic the same performance pattern through priming. Conflict monitoring theory also has difficulty explaining other issues such as whether conflict adaptation is task-specific. A meta-analysis of the so-called conflict adaptation effect suggests trial-to-trial repetitions do not entirely account for conflict adaptation effects, but these effects do appear to be task-specific. The meta-analysis also suggests the withdrawal of control is episodic rather than temporal and conflict adaptation may be sensitive to experimental session length. A novel eye-tracking paradigm addresses the timing of control engagement. The results suggest dynamic regulation of attention coupled with conflict detection. This more tightly coupled detection and regulation process in the context of conflict adaptation is more consistent with a carryover account than what would be expected from the conflict monitoring theory. A subsequent eye-tracking paradigm further supported that trial-to-trial modulations of control are generally more consistent with a carryover account than they are with the conflict monitoring theory. Overall, the empirical evidence points toward a carryover model of cognitive control. / 2016-10-17

Success in early childhood requires fluent cognitive control functioning and the ability to select and execute effective regulatory strategies across many new contexts including academics and social interactions. Cognitive control functioning has been positively linked to a host of important short- and long-term outcomes across many diverse domains. A wealth of research on self-efficacy, self-concept, and implicit theories of cognitive processes demonstrates that individuals’ self-perceptions of ability and cognition substantially influence important behavioral outcomes, namely academic performance. Investigations into the mechanisms underlying these links suggest that self-perceptions of abilities impact academic outcomes by differentially influencing the self-regulated learning behaviors that individuals choose to engage. Despite this knowledge, and evidence suggesting that capturing such self-perceptions from young children is highly plausible, the extent to which young children can reflect and report on their own cognitive control abilities has not been investigated. In this dissertation, I develop and validate an interview scale that aims to probe children’s self-perceptions of their cognitive control abilities using the Berkeley Puppet Interview administration format. Scale analyses of interviews from 125 children aged 4- through 7-years suggest the scale elicits responses that cluster around two correlated, but separable components: Self- and Emotion-Regulation and Attention Modulation. Responses on these two subscales were reliable, showing moderate to strong internal consistency. Subscale scores were strongly correlated with parent reports of similar skills, and self-reports of related constructs, but showed no such relations with behavioral tasks measuring executive functioning abilities. The findings suggest that young children are capable of reflecting and reporting on their own cognitive control skills, and that these skills correspond to parent reports of similar abilities. Further scale refinement and targeted validation efforts are called for; however, these encouraging early results suggest the new scale holds potential to play a key role in uncovering ways in which children’s self-perceptions influence their learning success.

This dissertation investigates the fronto-parietal representation of the structure of organised mental episodes by studying its effect on the representation of cognitive events occurring at various positions within it. The experiments in chapter 2 look at the completion of hierarchically organized mental (task/subtask) episodes. Multiple identical target-detection events were organized into a sequential task episode, and the individual events were connected in a means-to-end relationship. It is shown that events that are conceptualized as completing defined task episodes elicit greater activity compared to identical events lying within the episode; the magnitude of the end of episode activity depended on the hierarchical abstraction of the episode. In chapter 3, the effect of ordinal position of the cognitive events, making up the task episode, on their representation is investigated in the context of a biphasic task episode. The design further manipulated the cognitive load of the two phases independently. This allowed for a direct comparison of the effect of phase vis-à-vis the effect of cognitive load. The results showed that fronto-parietal regions that increased their activity in response to cognitive load, also increased their activity for the later phases of the task episode, even though the cognitive load associated with the later phase was, arguably, lower than the previous phase. Chapter 4 investigates if the characteristics of the higher-level representations, like organization of task descriptions, have a causal role in determining the structure of the ensuing mental episode. Results show this to be true. They also confirm the results of earlier chapters in a different framework. Chapter 5 shows that the effect of episode structure is not limited to the elicited activity, but also affects the information content of the representation of the events composing the episode. Specifically, the information content in many regions of later steps is higher than that of earlier steps. Together, the results show widespread representation of the structure of organised mental episodes.

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Deficits in cognitive control are associated with problems disengaging from ruminative thought, a significant risk factor for depression. Cognitive control refers to higher order cognitive processes used for goal-directed behavior, including emotion regulation. The current study examined associations between the switching component of cognitive control and rumination and tested the effects of two interventions used to improve cognitive control and thereby decrease ruminative thought. Undergraduate participants completed self-report measures to assess symptoms and an internal shift task to assess shifting ability. Participants completed a mood and rumination induction and were randomly assigned to one session of the Attention Training Technique (ATT), (n = 69), mindfulness meditation (n = 70), or an attention filler control task (n = 72). Switching deficits and rumination were not associated. The ATT moved participants’ focus of attention externally, and this outward shift in attention predicted lower state rumination. Decentering, however, was not impacted by attention training or mindfulness. Focus of attention did not impact mood recovery despite significant improvement in sad mood across all conditions. Overall, one session of attention training and mindfulness appears to have an impact on sad mood, but this effect is not superior to a simple distraction task. More than one session may be necessary to observe substantial benefits from the ATT or mindfulness. Implications and future research are discussed.

Mindfulness and cognitive control are overlapping constructs. Mindfulness involves maintaining awareness of the current experience by sustaining attention to relevant information and disengaging from irrelevant information. Cognitive control refers to the set of processes involved in selecting and monitoring information relevant to our goals, while ignoring or inhibiting information irrelevant to these goals. This dissertation contains three studies that examine the convergence between mindfulness and cognitive control. The first study examined the relationship between self-reported mindfulness and behavioural correlates of cognitive control using the Digit Stroop task within two experimental contexts: when task difficulty was not manipulated (non-titrated) and when task difficulty was increased (titrated). The results demonstrate that self-reported mindfulness predicted behavioural performance, but only when cognitive control processes were sufficiently challenged by increasing task difficulty. The second study examined the precise neural mechanisms underlying the relationship between mindfulness and cognitive control using electroencephalography (EEG) to identify changes to event-related potentials (ERPs) during the non-titrated Digit Stroop task after two weeks of daily training. By introducing a novel active control training condition (guided visual imagery meditation) that contrasted passive attention regulation with the focused attention regulation in mindfulness, the results isolated electrophysiological correlates of cognitive control that were uniquely tied to mindfulness training, including increased efficiency in conflict detection, delayed attentional capture by incongruent stimuli, faster conscious evaluation of all stimuli, and delayed automatic detection of all errors. The third study replicated and extended these findings by examining changes to ERPs when the cognitive control system was challenged using the titrated Digit Stroop task. Compared to the active control group, the mindfulness group showed enhanced sensory processing, resistance to stimulus-driven attentional capture and faster conscious evaluation of all stimuli after training. Taken together, this dissertation establishes an empirical relationship between behavioural and electrophysiological correlates of mindfulness and cognitive control. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Mindfulness is a way of paying attention, on purpose, in the present-moment and nonjudgmentally. By focusing attention on present goals and redirecting attention from distractions, mindfulness enhances moment-to-moment awareness of fluctuations in cognitive demands. As a result, meditators can develop greater control over a set of cognitive processes that promote useful behavioural responses. This deliberate practice overlaps with a construct known as “cognitive control”—a set of cognitive processes that facilitate information processing and behaviour to vary adaptively from moment to moment depending on current goals. This dissertation examines the relationship between mindfulness and cognitive control using electroencephalography (EEG) to record ongoing brain activity during two variations of a cognitive control task designed to manipulate difficulty. The results show that self-reported mindfulness predicts cognitive control performance when task difficulty is increased and that two weeks of daily mindfulness training leads to changes in neural activity underlying this cognitive control performance.

<p>Problematic alcohol consumption develops concurrently with deficits in decision-making.  These deficits may be due to alterations in dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) neural activity, as it is essential for the evaluation and implementation of behavioral strategies. In this study, we hypothesized that differences in cognitive control would be evident between Wistars and alcohol-preferring P rats. Cognitive control can be split into proactive and reactive components. Proactive control maintains goal-directed behavior independent of a stimulus whereas reactive control elicits goal-directed behavior at the time of a stimulus. Specifically, it was hypothesized that Wistars would show proactive control over alcohol-seeking whereas P rats </p> <p>would show reactive control over alcohol-seeking. Proactive control in our rodent model is defined as responding to distal task cues whereas reactive control is responding to proximal cues. This was tested in rodents performing a 2-way Cued Access Protocol (2CAP) that facilitates measurements of alcohol seeking and drinking. Congruent sessions were the typical, default 2CAP sessions that consisted of the CS+ being on the same side as alcohol access. These were compared with incongruent sessions where alcohol access was opposite of the CS+. Wistars exhibited an increase in incorrect approaches during the incongruent sessions, which was not detectable in P rats. A trial-by-trial analysis indicated that the increases in incorrect responses </p> <p>was explained by Wistars utilizing the previously learned task-rule, whereas the P rats did not. </p> <p>This motivated the subsequent hypothesis that neural activity patterns corresponding to proactive control would be observable in Wistars but not P rats. Principal Component Analysis indicated that neural ensembles in the dmPFC of Wistars exhibited decreased activity to the cue light in incongruent sessions whereas P rat ensembles displayed increased activity at timepoints associated with the onset and end of alcohol access. Overall, it was observed that P rats showed the most differences in neural activity at times relevant for alcohol delivery; specifically, when the sipper came into the apparatus and left. Conversely, Wistars showed differences prior to approach as evidenced by both differences in cue-related activity as well as differences in </p> <p>spatial-strategies. Together, these results support our hypothesis that Wistars are more likely to engage proactive cognitive control strategies whereas P rats are more likely to engage reactive cognitive control strategies. Although P rats were bred to prefer alcohol, differences in cognitive control phenotypes may have concomitantly occurred that are of clinical relevance.</p>

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As the popularity of video games increases, a growing literature has begun to examine the association of video game play with cognitive processes. An advantage in cognitive control ability for video game players (VGPs) compared to nongamers (nVGPs) has been suggested by a number of recent studies. Miyake et al. (2000) identify three separable components of cognitive control: ability to shift mental set, updating and monitoring of working memory, and ability to inhibit automatic responses. In three sets of experiments, we investigated claims of a benefit in cognitive control for VGPs compared to nVGPs. Chapter 2 used two task switching paradigms to examine the ability to shift mental set, finding no difference in cognitive control between VGPs and nVGPs when baseline differences in response speed were accounted for. In Chapter 3, a series of nback experiments to investigate working memory demonstrated that VGPs display an advantage in spatial processing, but not in cognitive control. Chapter 4 assessed group differences using three measures of inhibitory control: flanker, Stroop, and go no-go tasks. The results of these experiments suggest that VGPs may rely more on automaticitybased response strategies than do nVGPs, but no group differences in cognitive control were evident. Overall, the results of this dissertation dispute a growing literature that assumes a cognitive control benefit for VGPs compared to nVGPs. Although VGPs reliably show faster performance on a range of tasks used to assess cognitive control (e.g., task switching paradigms), when examined with careful methods, these observed differences in performance are not attributable to differences in cognitive control ability. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Many people enjoy playing video games, and it is important to understand whether playing these games is associated with differences in the way we think, or our ability to complete tasks. Previous studies have claimed that playing video games is associated with increased control over our ability to selectively respond to our environment. This dissertation uses a series of experiments to compare the cognitive control ability of video game players (VGPs), and people who do not play video games (nVGPs). We tested their ability to switch between different tasks, to hold items in memory, and to withhold responses. Results of these experiments suggest that although VGPs may generally respond faster and process spatial information better than nVGPs, there are no differences in cognitive control between VGPs and nVGPs.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by reduced activation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), a brain region involved in both emotion regulation and basic cognitive control processes. Recent studies have indicated that computerized interventions designed to activate the DLPFC can reduce depressive symptoms. The current study was a randomized controlled trial which extends this research to test whether one such program, called Cognitive Control Training (CCT), enhances depression treatment outcomes when used in adjunct to brief behavioral activation therapy for depression (BATD), an empirically-supported outpatient intervention. This study also explored whether the effects of BATD + CCT treatment on depression were mediated by changes in rumination and cognitive control. In a sample of thirty-four adults diagnosed with MDD, participants were randomly assigned to complete four sessions of either computerized CCT or a non-active computerized control task, concurrently with four sessions of BATD. Completion of the assigned computerized task took place immediately before each of the four BATD therapy sessions. Depression symptoms and proposed treatment mediators were assessed at baseline, mid-treatment, post-treatment, and four-week follow-up visits. I hypothesized that compared to the control group, participants receiving adjunctive CCT would demonstrate significantly reduced depressive symptoms. I also hypothesized that these effects would be mediated by changes in inhibitory control and set-shifting performance in the context of negative emotional material, as well as by changes in ruminative brooding. Results did not support these hypotheses. Depressive symptoms were reduced over time in both treatment conditions, with no significant difference between treatment conditions. Assignment to CCT was not associated with changes in the proposed mediators. Furthermore, exploratory analyses found minimal evidence that performance on inhibitory control and set-shifting tasks were related to baseline clinical characteristics (such as depression severity, rumination, or anxiety symptoms) or treatment outcomes. The results of this study support the potential for BATD as a brief, low-cost, flexible intervention for the treatment of depression and further show that CCT administered in adjunct to a 4-session BATD program does not add clinical benefit in the treatment of depression. This study and other recent research suggest that the effects of CCT may not be as robust as previously indicated, highlighting the need for continued investigation of the conditions under which CCT may be effective.