University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Engineering. / This research has analysed the economy-wide impacts of carbon tax as a policy option to reduce the rate of growth of carbon-dioxide emissions from the electricity sector in Australia. These impacts are analysed for energy and non energy sectors of the economy. An energy-oriented Input–Output framework, with ‘flexible’ production functions, based on Translog and Cobb-Douglas formulations, is employed for the analysis of various impacts. Further, two alternative conceptions of carbon tax are considered in this research, namely, based on Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) and Shared Responsibility Principle (SRP). In the first instance, the impacts are analysed, for the period 2005–2020, for tax levels of $10 and $20 per tonne of CO2, in a situation of no a-priori limit on CO2 emissions. The analysis shows that CO2 emissions from the electricity sector, when carbon tax is based on PPP, would be 211 and 152 Mt, for tax levels of $10 and $20, respectively (as compared to 250 Mt in the Base Case scenario, that is, the business-as-usual-case). The net economic costs, corresponding with these tax levels, expressed in present value terms, would be $27 and $49 billion, respectively, over the period 2005-2020. These economic costs are equivalent to 0.43 and 0.78 per cent of the estimated GDP of Australia. Further, most of the economic burden, in this instance, would fall on the electricity sector, particularly coal-fired electricity generators – large consumers of direct fossil fuel. On the other hand, in the case of a carbon tax based on SRP, CO2 emissions would be 172 and 116 Mt, for tax levels of $10 and $20, respectively. The corresponding net economic costs would be $47 (0.74 per cent of GDP) and $84 (1.34 per cent of GDP) billion, respectively, with significant burden felt by the commercial sector – large consumers of indirect energy and materials whose production would contribute to CO2 emissions. Next, the impacts are analysed by placing an a-priori limit on CO2 emissions from the electricity sector – equivalent to 108 per cent of the 1990 level (that is, 138 Mt), by the year 2020. Two cases are analysed, namely, early action (carbon tax introduced in 2005) and deferred action (carbon tax introduced in 2010). In the case of early action, the analysis suggests, carbon tax of $25 and $15, based on PPP and SRP, respectively, would be required to achieve the above noted emissions target. The corresponding tax levels in the case of deferred action are $51 and $26, respectively. This research also shows that the net economic costs, in the case of early action, would be $32 billion (for PPP) and $18 billion (for SRP) higher than those in the case of deferred action. However, this research has demonstrated, that this inference is largely due to the selection of particular indicator (that is, present value) and the relatively short time frame (that is, 2005–2020) for analysis. By extending the time frame of the analysis to the year 2040, the case for an early introduction of carbon tax strengthens. Overall, the analysis in this research suggests that an immediate introduction of carbon tax, based on SRP, is the most attractive approach to reduce the rate of growth of CO2 emissions from the electricity sector and to simultaneously meet economic and social objectives. If the decision to introduce such a tax is deferred, it would be rather difficult to achieve not only environmental objectives but economic and social objectives as well.

University of Technology, Sydney. Faculty of Engineering. / This research has analysed the economy-wide impacts of carbon tax as a policy option to reduce the rate of growth of carbon-dioxide emissions from the electricity sector in Australia. These impacts are analysed for energy and non energy sectors of the economy. An energy-oriented Input–Output framework, with ‘flexible’ production functions, based on Translog and Cobb-Douglas formulations, is employed for the analysis of various impacts. Further, two alternative conceptions of carbon tax are considered in this research, namely, based on Polluter Pays Principle (PPP) and Shared Responsibility Principle (SRP). In the first instance, the impacts are analysed, for the period 2005–2020, for tax levels of $10 and $20 per tonne of CO2, in a situation of no a-priori limit on CO2 emissions. The analysis shows that CO2 emissions from the electricity sector, when carbon tax is based on PPP, would be 211 and 152 Mt, for tax levels of $10 and $20, respectively (as compared to 250 Mt in the Base Case scenario, that is, the business-as-usual-case). The net economic costs, corresponding with these tax levels, expressed in present value terms, would be $27 and $49 billion, respectively, over the period 2005-2020. These economic costs are equivalent to 0.43 and 0.78 per cent of the estimated GDP of Australia. Further, most of the economic burden, in this instance, would fall on the electricity sector, particularly coal-fired electricity generators – large consumers of direct fossil fuel. On the other hand, in the case of a carbon tax based on SRP, CO2 emissions would be 172 and 116 Mt, for tax levels of $10 and $20, respectively. The corresponding net economic costs would be $47 (0.74 per cent of GDP) and $84 (1.34 per cent of GDP) billion, respectively, with significant burden felt by the commercial sector – large consumers of indirect energy and materials whose production would contribute to CO2 emissions. Next, the impacts are analysed by placing an a-priori limit on CO2 emissions from the electricity sector – equivalent to 108 per cent of the 1990 level (that is, 138 Mt), by the year 2020. Two cases are analysed, namely, early action (carbon tax introduced in 2005) and deferred action (carbon tax introduced in 2010). In the case of early action, the analysis suggests, carbon tax of $25 and $15, based on PPP and SRP, respectively, would be required to achieve the above noted emissions target. The corresponding tax levels in the case of deferred action are $51 and $26, respectively. This research also shows that the net economic costs, in the case of early action, would be $32 billion (for PPP) and $18 billion (for SRP) higher than those in the case of deferred action. However, this research has demonstrated, that this inference is largely due to the selection of particular indicator (that is, present value) and the relatively short time frame (that is, 2005–2020) for analysis. By extending the time frame of the analysis to the year 2040, the case for an early introduction of carbon tax strengthens. Overall, the analysis in this research suggests that an immediate introduction of carbon tax, based on SRP, is the most attractive approach to reduce the rate of growth of CO2 emissions from the electricity sector and to simultaneously meet economic and social objectives. If the decision to introduce such a tax is deferred, it would be rather difficult to achieve not only environmental objectives but economic and social objectives as well.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Technology Sydney, 2007.

Thesis (M.Com. (Accountancy))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management, School of Accountancy, 2014. / At the 2013 budget presentation, the South African government indicated its intention to introduce carbon tax starting 1 January, 2015 at the rate of R120 per ton of Co2 equivalent. Prior research confirmed that carbon taxes have the potential to increase price levels, make exports uncompetitive and reinforce income inequality. It was suspected that the proposed carbon tax in the face of other similar taxes in South Africa would result in similar outcome. Furthermore, the socio-economic circumstance of South Africa could make the tax unfair to taxpayers. The object of this research was to evaluate the fairness of the proposed carbon tax in South Africa using the tenets of tax fairness Proposed by Smith (1776). The research methodology adopted was content analysis and correspondence analysis to analyse survey responses. The results of the analysis confirmed that the proposed carbon tax would result in price increases, make exports uncompetitive and reinforce income inequality. It was concluded that the proposed carbon tax would be unfair to taxpayers if implemented as currently designed

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Delaware, 2007. / Principal faculty advisor: Young-Doo Wang, School of Urban Affairs & Public Policy. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Pennsylvania State University, 2005. / Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Thesis (Ph. D. (Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 174-181).

Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models are among the most influential tools in applied economics. In the past few years, however, some serious questions have been raised about the validity of these models. The core of the critique is that the parameter selection criteria and the functional forms used are at odds with contemporary standards of practice in econometrics. After surveying the relevant literature, which I refer to as the 'econometric critique', a formal summary of the case against standard CGE modeling is presented, as is an alternative econometric-based modeling strategy which answers the critique. I then work through a comparative CGE modeling experiment designed to assess the contrasting methods. It is found that the parameter selection rule influences model predictions in individual sectors, but industry- and economy-wide aggregates do not appear to be much affected by reparameterizing a CGE model according to econometric criteria. By contrast, the choice of functional forms affects not only industry-specific results, but aggregate results as well, even for small policy shocks. However flexible functional forms are difficult to implement in CGE models because global monotonicity must be maintained. In the second and third chapters, I adapt one of the models to analyze the effects of carbon taxes in Canada. I review an approach called 'double dividend' taxation, in which the revenues from carbon taxes are used to reduce the rates of other distortionary taxes, so an overall efficiency gain can potentially be realized whether or not the reduction in pollution improves welfare. This eliminates the need to measure benefits, and in an international context, would obviate the free-rider problem. I demonstrate the existence of a double dividend strategy for carbon taxation in Canada in the short run. In chapter three, however, a long run extension of the model shows that the double dividend does not persist over time. Nevertheless, choosing an efficient revenue-recycling option can significantly reduce the implementation cost of the carbon tax.

Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models are among the most influential tools in applied economics. In the past few years, however, some serious questions have been raised about the validity of these models. The core of the critique is that the parameter selection criteria and the functional forms used are at odds with contemporary standards of practice in econometrics. After surveying the relevant literature, which I refer to as the 'econometric critique', a formal summary of the case against standard CGE modeling is presented, as is an alternative econometric-based modeling strategy which answers the critique. I then work through a comparative CGE modeling experiment designed to assess the contrasting methods. It is found that the parameter selection rule influences model predictions in individual sectors, but industry- and economy-wide aggregates do not appear to be much affected by reparameterizing a CGE model according to econometric criteria. By contrast, the choice of functional forms affects not only industry-specific results, but aggregate results as well, even for small policy shocks. However flexible functional forms are difficult to implement in CGE models because global monotonicity must be maintained. In the second and third chapters, I adapt one of the models to analyze the effects of carbon taxes in Canada. I review an approach called 'double dividend' taxation, in which the revenues from carbon taxes are used to reduce the rates of other distortionary taxes, so an overall efficiency gain can potentially be realized whether or not the reduction in pollution improves welfare. This eliminates the need to measure benefits, and in an international context, would obviate the free-rider problem. I demonstrate the existence of a double dividend strategy for carbon taxation in Canada in the short run. In chapter three, however, a long run extension of the model shows that the double dividend does not persist over time. Nevertheless, choosing an efficient revenue-recycling option can significantly reduce the implementation cost of the carbon tax. / Arts, Faculty of / Vancouver School of Economics / Graduate

Thesis (M.A. (Anthropology))--University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities, School of Social Sciences, 2016. / Governments, like South Africa, are implementing carbon tax and carbon credit programs to incent businesses to lower their GHG emissions. That is not to say there are not loftier motivations in the wider world, but in this study we have mostly encountered Homo Economicus. Our observations have noted that people either want to make money or save money by way of participating in the green economy. Earth’s threatening posture is yet to change our “habitus”. The changes so far are from economic coercion and not ecological conviction. And it’s primarily prompted through the scientific community, who are understandably, the first responders to a threat with slow and mostly imperceptible reverberations. The responses of those trying to make money, involve participating in the process of carbon commodification. CERs are a new form of currency available to those able to deploy labor and capital in efforts to capture carbon molecules and prevent their creation. The looming South African carbon tax has spurred organizations to lower their emissions so as not to effect bottom-line profitability. [Taken from the conclusion. No abstract provided] / MT2017