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In the present study, efforts have been made to produce protective surface layers in order to improve the tribological, electrochemical and tribo-electrochemical response of titanium. In order to achieve this, two different techniques were employed: 1) thermal oxidation (TO) and 2) pack carburisation with oxygen diffusion (PC). Thermal oxidation of commercially pure titanium (CP-Ti) was undertaken at a temperature of 625 °C for durations of 5, 20 and 72 h. This results in a multi-layered structure comprising a titanium dioxide layer (rutile) atop of an α-titanium oxygen diffusion zone (α-Ti(O)). Initial attempts have also been made to improve the frictional behaviour of the oxide layer, using a prior surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) and controlled slow cooling after oxidation. The results demonstrate that these prior and post treatments have a positive effect on the tribological performance of the oxide layer. Electrochemical and tribo-electrochemical characterisation was also carried out in a 0.9% NaCl solution. Electrochemical tests provided evidence that oxygen content in the upper part of the oxygen diffusion zone (depths < 5 μm from the surface) helps to accelerate passive film formation and thus improve the corrosion resistance of CP-Ti. Tribo-electrochemical testing of TO-Ti was carried out against an alumina counter face under various anodic and cathodic potentials. It is shown that the rutile oxide layer offers low friction and improved wear resistance. An unusual anodic protection behaviour for the oxide film has also been observed. When the TO-Ti is polarised anodically during sliding, the durability of the oxide layer is prolonged, resulting in low friction and much reduced material loss. In the present work a new pack carburising surface treatment method has been developed, whereby oxygen diffusion and carburisation of CP-Ti were undertaken concurrently. Optimisation of the process showed that a temperature of 925 °C for 20 h resulted in a multilayer structure comprising of a titanium carbide (TiC) network layer atop of a relatively thick α-Ti(O) diffusion zone. Tribological testing demonstrated that the new surface treatment can significantly enhance the tribological properties of titanium, in terms of much reduced friction (μ ≈ 0.2), improved wear resistance and enhanced load bearing capacity. Electrochemical corrosion testing also showed the PC-Ti retained the favourable corrosion characteristics of CP-Ti. Tribocorrosive testing revealed an improved tribological response when compared with that of untreated CP-Ti.

La capture du carbone de combustion implique le transport de gaz riches en CO2 a haute temperature. Cette etude vise a preciser les facteurs controlant l'oxydation d'alliages chromino-formeurs dans ces environnements. Des alliages modeles Fe–Cr et Fe–Cr–Ni ont ainsi ete exposes a des melanges Ar–CO2–H2O a 650 et 800 °C, et les produits de reaction examines a l'aide de techniques de metallographie conventionnelles. La precipitation de carbures sous des couches d'oxyde indique une sursaturation en carbone a l'interface metal/oxyde, par rapport a l'atmosphere exterieure. Sur la base d'un modele d'equilibre thermodynamique local, les vitesses de carburation et fractions volumiques de precipites mesurees sont utilisees pour evaluer l'influence de la composition de l'oxyde et de la presence d'H2O dans le gaz sur le transport du carbone. En analysant la depletion en chrome dans l'alliage sous-jacent, nous montrons que la carburation limitee sous une couche de chromine n'altere pas la stabilite de l'oxyde. L'evolution morphologique des nodules d'oxydes riches en fer formes a la suite de la rupture localisee de la chromine est mise en relation avec la capacite de l'alliage a fournir du chrome a l'interface metal/oxyde. L'application de modeles de germination-croissance aux cinetiques de developement de nodules permet d'evaluer la resistance des couches de chromine via des frequences de germination determinees a partir des taux de recouvrement de nodules et des gains de masse des echantillons. Nous examinons enfin l'importance relative de la germination et de la croissance des nodules dans le controle de la performance globale des alliages en fonction de la temperature de reaction. / Materials to convey hot CO2-rich gases are needed in carbon capture technologies currently being developed. This work is aimed at investigating the factors controlling the oxidation of chromia-forming alloys in these atmospheres. To do so, model Fe–Cr and Fe–Cr–Ni alloys were exposed to Ar–CO2–H2O gas mixtures at 650 and 800 °C,and the reaction products examined using conventional metallography techniques. Carbide precipitation beneath oxide scales reflects a carbon supersaturation at the metal/oxide interface relative to the external atmosphere: as a gradient of oxygen potential is established across the growing scale, an elevated carbon activity results at the interface if the scale transmits carbon. On the basis of a local equilibrium model, measured carburisation rates and precipitate volume fractions were used to evaluate the influence of oxide composition and of the presence of H2O in the gas on carbon uptake/transport in the scales. Limited carburisation beneath Cr2O3 scales was shown by means of an analysis of subscale chromium depletion not to alter the oxide stability. The morphological evolution of Fe-rich oxide nodules formed as a result of localised Cr2O3 failure was studied in relation to the alloy ability to supply chromium to the metal/oxide interface. Application of nucleation-growth models to the kinetics of nodule development allowed the resistance of Cr2O3 scales to be evaluated in terms of nodule nucleation rates determined from experimental nodule surface coverages and specimen weight gains. The relative importance of nodule nucleation and growth in determining the overall alloy performance as a function of reaction temperature is discussed.

Le metal dusting est un type de corrosion catastrophique des alliages à base de fer, de nickel ou de cobalt. Il se caractérise par une dégradation de ces matériaux en une fine poussière de particules métalliques et de carbone graphitique, appelée « coke », pouvant également contenir des carbures et des oxydes. Ce phénomène a lieu lorsque le mélange gazeux est sursaturé en carbone (ac>>1), à des températures comprises entre 400°C et 800°C. Cinq alliages commerciaux austénitiques (800HT, HR120, Inconel 625, Inconel 690 et Inconel 693) et deux matériaux modèles fabriqués par SPS (NiFeCr et NiFeCr+Cu) sont testés dans deux environnements de metal dusting à 570°C. Le premier test est effectué sous pression atmosphérique dans un mélange CO-H2-H2O, le second dans une atmosphère CO-H2-CO2-CH4-H2O sous 21 bars de pression. La première composition est ajustée pour obtenir une activité en carbone et une pression partielle en dioxygène proches de celles de l’environnement sous haute pression. Après plus de 14 000 h heures d’exposition, l’alliage 625 n’est pas dégradé. Il présente une précipitation d’aiguilles de γ’’-Ni3Nb, le niobium migrant vers la surface suite à l’appauvrissement en chrome par oxydation. Le matériau NiFeCr+Cu présente une évolution microstructurale proche, le cuivre formant une couche continue à l’interface métal/oxyde. Le cuivre étant non-catalytique pour la formation de carbone, sa ségrégation en surface améliore la résistance du matériau. L’alliage 690 présente une carburation homogène sur toute la surface qui n’évolue pas dans le temps. L’alliage 693 présente au contraire une carburation très importante, de plus en plus profonde avec la durée d’exposition. Celle-ci s’explique par la formation d’une couche continue d’alumine de transition, métastable. Sa transformation en alumine α, stable, s’accompagne d’une contraction de la maille, fissurant la couche d’oxyde. L’atmosphère accède alors directement à la surface métallique, carburant l’alliage. La bonne tenue de cet alliage, malgré la fissuration de l’oxyde, s’explique par sa forte teneur en chrome et par la faible cinétique de la transformation allotropique à 570°C. Les alliages 800HT, HR120 et NiFeCr sont corrodés par piqûration. Pour l’alliage 800HT, celle-ci est simulée en surface par un modèle de germination-croissance dépendant du temps d’incubation des piqûres, de leur croissance et de la densité de piqûres. La prise en compte du volume des piqûres pour reproduire les pertes de masses enregistrées est concluante sous haute pression mais pas à pression atmosphérique. Cela met en exergue l’influence de la géométrie de l’échantillon (les échantillons testés à pression atmosphériques étant très attaqués sur les bords), et donc l’intérêt d’étudier la piqûration. Sous pression atmosphérique, la croissance latérale des piqûres se fait par oxydation des carbures tandis que la croissance en profondeur se fait par un mécanisme de graphitisation accélérée, lorsque le flux de carbone est suffisamment grand devant le flux d’oxygène. La graphitisation accélérée n’a lieu qu’en fond de fissure du fait du faible renouvellement de l’atmosphère. Les fissures se forment lors du cyclage thermique effectué toutes les 500 h pour caractériser les échantillons. Cela conduit à un faciès de corrosion constitué d’une oxydation interne fine et discontinue exposant directement à l’atmosphère l’alliage carburé, qui est alors graphitisé. Il en résulte l’apparition d’une succession d’anneaux de corrosion, un sur deux croissant en profondeur. La morphologie issue du mécanisme de graphitisation favorisée est visible sur toute la circonférence des piqûres formées sous haute pression. Le même mécanisme a donc lieu, globalement cette fois, le flux de carbone étant suffisamment grand devant le flux d’oxygène dès l’introduction dans le banc de corrosion. Les morphologies observées sont donc liées aux conditions expérimentales (température, atmosphère, débit) et à la procédure de suivi (retraits). / “Metal dusting” is a catastrophic corrosion phenomenon of Fe-, Ni- and Co-based alloys. It is characterised by the degraded of these materials into a dust of fine metallic particles and graphitic carbon, named “coke”, which can also contain oxides and carbides, depending on the alloy. This phenomenon occurs when the gas mixture is oversaturated in carbon (ac>>1), for temperatures between 400°C and 800°C. Five commercial austenitic alloys (800HT, HR120, Inconel 625, Inconel 690 and Inconel 693) and two model alloys fabricated by SPS (NiFeCr et NiFeCr+Cu) are tested under two metal dusting environments at 570°C. The first test is carried out under atmospheric pressure in a CO-H2-H2O gas mixture, while the second is performed at 21 bar in a CO-H2-CO2-CH4-H2O atmosphere. The first environment is adjusted to obtain a carbon activity and a dioxygen partial pressure similar to the ones of the second environment. After 14 000 h of exposure, 625 alloy is not degraded. Chromium depletion stemmed from oxide scale formation induces niobium diffusion to the surface and precipitation of needle-like γ’’-Ni3Nb precipitates below the alloy surface. NiFeCr+Cu alloy presents a close microstructural evolution, as copper forms a continuous scale at the metal/oxide interface. Its segregation induces an improved resistance of the material, copper being non-catalytic to carbon formation. 690 alloy presents an homogeneous carburation under its whole surface which does not deepen during further exposure. 693 alloy, however, presents an important carburisation, which increases with the exposure time. This can be explained by the formation of a continuous oxide scale composed of a metastable transient alumina. Allotropic transformation of this alumina in its stable form, α-alumina, induces lattice contraction. The oxide scale undergoes tensile stress, and cracks form. The atmosphere can then accede directly to the catalytic surface and carburise the material. Despite this, the macroscopically good behaviour of 693 alloy can be explained by its high chromium level and the low kinetics of the allotropic transformation at 570°C. 800HT, HR120 and NiFeCr alloys are degraded by pitting. Pitting on 800HT is modelled using a nucleation-growth model. It depends on pit incubation time, pit growth kinetics and pit density. Taking into account the volume of the pits to model the mass losses undergone by the alloys is concluding for the specimens tested under high pressure but not for those tested at atmospheric pressure. This shows the influence of the sample geometry (samples tested at atmospheric pressure are more attacked on the edges), hence the interest to study corrosion via pitting. For tests at atmospheric pressure, pit lateral growth occurs by oxidation of internal carbides while pit inward growth stems from an enhanced graphitisation mechanism, when the carbon flux is high enough compared to the oxygen flux. Enhanced graphitisation takes place at the bottom of cracks formed through the internal oxidation zone due to the sample cooling performed every 500h for characterisation. The atmosphere is hardly renewed at the bottom of the crack. It leads to a thin, discontinuous oxidation layer exposing directly to the atmosphere the carburised alloy, which is then graphitised. This results in a succession of corrosion rings, one from two being deep, due to the combination of cracking and enhanced graphitisation. The morphology observed under atmospheric pressure due to enhanced graphitisation is also visible under high pressure, but on the entire pit circumference. It reveals that the same mechanisms takes place but on the entire pit, the carbon flux being high enough compared to the oxygen flux, right from its introduction in the corrosion rig. The two observed pit morphologies are then strongly linked to experimental conditions (temperature, gas mixture, gas flow) and the experimental procedure (thermal cycling induced by regular withdrawals).