Ochre is found at many Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and its use is often attributed by archaeologists to enhanced mental abilities and symbolism. However, the links between the visible uses of ochre, cognition and symbolism have not been clearly demonstrated. Here it is argued that by understanding ochre processing technology and some of the stages involved in using ochre, one can determine the skill, knowledge and cognitive abilities required to execute those activities. In order to understand the usetraces found on ochre, and to enable the identification of them, as well as the types of ochre used, experiments were first performed with geological ochre specimens. Ochre pieces collected from the Sibudu surrounds were used experimentally for a variety of grinding, scoring and rubbing activities. All use-traces created on the ochre piece during an activity were macro- and microscopically examined, recorded and compared. Experimental ochre pieces ground against a coarse or fine-grained slab develop parallel striations. Grinding results in significant changes to the surface shape of the ochre, and often results in faceted edges. Scoring can be performed with the intention to create powder, or to create a design. The incisions created from scoring often do not reach all the edges of the used surface and they regularly have frayed terminations. A frayed incision termination shows that the incision was created by multiple scoring strokes. When ochre is scored to manufacture powder the incisions that are generated are parallel groups of grooves with erratically oriented grooves as well. Grooves created through both grinding and scoring have microstriations within them and they show a range of profile shapes. The most common use-wear from rubbing ochre on soft materials is smoothing, edge rounding and polish. Microstriations and metallic lustre occasionally form during rubbing. The collection of utilised experimental ochre formed a comparative collection for the examination of the Sibudu ochre. The main body of this research comprises a study of the Middle Stone Age ochre assemblage from Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Sibudu has a large Middle Stone Age ochre assemblage of over 9000 pieces of ochre from layers dating between ~77 ka and ~37.6 ka. All pieces were examined to determine the types of ochre used and to inspect all use-traces present on the pieces. The assemblage comprises 5449 ochre pieces iv >8 mm, including 682 pieces with markings from use. The pre-Still Bay (~77 ka) and Howiesons Poort (~65–62 ka) layers have the highest percentage of utilised pieces. Bright-red ochre was preferentially selected for use throughout most of sequence. There is evidence of the preferential selection of specific types of ochre for use in the Sibudu assemblage. Shale and pieces with medium hardness values are common throughout the sequence. Grain sizes change through time – pieces with clayey grain sizes are favoured during the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, whereas silty grain sizes are preferred in the younger Middle Stone Age occupations. High frequencies of bright-red amongst the utilised pieces, coupled with high frequencies of yellow or orange pieces with no evidence of use, suggest that colour choices were deliberate and not a product of postdepositional heating. Chemical analysis of a sample of utilised pieces indicates that they all contain iron, silicon, aluminium and calcium; many pieces contain hematite and some contain maghemite. Use-traces were divided into activity categories, based on experimental results. Combined grinding and rubbing is the most frequent activity for which ochre pieces were used. Grinding and rubbing use-wear also occurs independently on many pieces. Scored pieces are rare, but are more frequent in the pre-Still Bay (~77 ka) industry than elsewhere in the sequence. Some of the incisions appear to be deliberate engravings, and parallel lines and fan-like marks are the most often repeated patterns. Use-traces acquired during powder-producing activities predominate, implying a desire to create ochre powder. Powder-producing activities were mainly performed with bright-red pieces, while minimal scoring is mainly present on brown-red pieces. Pieces with mica inclusions are not common, but were frequently used for powder-producing activities. Once the activities performed with ochre were established, thought-and-action sequences, or cognigrams, were constructed. This helped establish the steps involved in each activity and the temporal and physical distance between the commencement of a task to its completion. Inferential sequences were constructed to establish the procedures and knowledge needed to complete an activity, thereby establishing the cognitive prerequisites. Cognitive interpretations are made using the concept of enhanced executive functions of the brain. The construction of the inferential thoughtv and-action sequences showed that the various ways that ochre was used have different cognitive requirements. Powder-production alone is not an indicator of complex cognitive processes, although some planning, foresight and knowledge of materials is required. Some of the powder was used in the creation of hafting adhesives, which is a cognitively demanding process requiring attention-switching ability, response inhibition and abstract thought. Grinding ochre and then rubbing the piece on a soft material for the direct transfer of powder does require some complex mental abilities, such as multi-tasking and switching attention. Scoring a piece of ochre with a sharp tool does not necessitate enhanced executive functions, but some engravings demonstrate foresight, intentionality and an awareness of space and symmetry that may demonstrate abstract thought. This research provides a complete description of the Middle Stone Age ochre assemblage at Sibudu, and establishes the way that ochre was used at the site. This contributes to the debate on the advent of enhanced behaviours in the past by providing insight into the cognitive abilities required by the ochre users. It offers a method of analysing ochre use in the past by drawing on cognitive theory and the visible applications of ochre. Both simple and complex cognitive abilities were required for ochre activities at Sibudu. The requirement for cognitively complex abilities in some of the ochre-related activities at Sibudu suggests that the people living there during the MSA had advanced mental capabilities like modern humans living today. This research shows how ochre use can be employed as a proxy for cognitive capabilities, and can therefore shed light on the evolution of the modern mind.

[ES] El trabajo aquí desarrollado pretende sacar a la luz un valioso patrimonio de 1.018 casas-cueva existentes en la comarca del Vinalopó Medio en la provincia de Alicante, con escasas referencias publicadas hasta el momento por los investigadores dedicados a la materia. Abordar el conocimiento de este extenso conjunto excavado ha supuesto un extraordinario reto para el que ha sido necesario estructurar la investigación en diversas fases, la primera, ineludible, la localización y censado de todas ellas. A partir de esta primera etapa se desarrolla toda una labor que tiene como fin último la puesta en valor de las casas-cueva de la comarca y sentar las bases para lograr el reconocimiento y la debida protección patrimonial por parte de las administraciones. Así, el estudio llevado a cabo se centra en la identificación de las características de los núcleos de cuevas hasta definir la tipología propia de los asentamientos de la zona y la morfología interna del espacio excavado, para, seguidamente, establecer un análisis comparativo con otros conjuntos de España. Se completa la investigación con la evaluación del estado actual de conservación de estas viviendas a través de la identificación de los daños y lesiones y con la aportación de técnicas y actuaciones de restauración. Igualmente, se verifican las extraordinarias condiciones de confort ambiental interior de las casas-cueva. El trazado de todo este trabajo culmina con la propuesta de dos estrategias de intervención que procuran aprovechar los recursos de la comarca y promocionar la recuperación del uso como vivienda de estas cuevas. / [CA] El treball ací desenvolupat pretén traure a la llum un valuós patrimoni de 1.018 cases-cova existents a la comarca del Vinalopó Mitjà a la província d'Alacant, amb escasses referències publicades fins al moment pels investigadors dedicats a la matèria. Abordar el coneixement d'aquest extens conjunt excavat ha suposat un extraordinari repte per al qual ha sigut necessari estructurar la investigació en diverses fases, la primera, ineludible, la localització i censat de totes elles. A partir d'aquesta primera etapa es desenvolupa tota una labor que té com a fi última la posada en valor de les cases-cova de la comarca i establir les bases per a aconseguir el reconeixement i la deguda protecció patrimonial per part de les administracions. Així, l'estudi dut a terme se centra en la identificació de les característiques dels nuclis de coves fins a definir la tipologia pròpia dels assentaments de la zona i la morfologia interna de l'espai excavat, per a, seguidament, establir una anàlisi comparativa amb altres conjunts d'Espanya. Es completa la investigació amb l'avaluació de l'estat actual de conservació d'aquests habitatges a través de la identificació dels danys i lesions i amb l'aportació de tècniques i actuacions de restauració. Igualment, es verifiquen les extraordinàries condicions de confort ambiental interior de les cases-cova. El traçat de tot aquest treball culmina amb la proposta de dues estratègies d'intervenció que procuren aprofitar els recursos de la comarca i promocionar la recuperació de l'ús com a habitatge d'aquestes coves. / [EN] This work has the aim of bring to light a valuable heritage of 1.018 cave-houses located at the Vinalopó Medio in the province of Alicante, with few published works to date by researchers in the field. To address the knowledge of this huge excavated complex has led a tremendous challenge and, in consequence, it has been necessary to divide the research along different phases, first of all, unavoidable, the location and census of all of them. After this first stage, a long task has been carried out with the ultimate goal of calling attention to the value of the cave-houses at this area and lay the basis to achieve the recognition and the correct equity protection by the public administrations. In this way, the work performed is focused in the identification of characteristics of the cave areas to define the representative typology of the settlements in the area and the internal morphology of the excavated complex and, then, carry out a comparative analysis with other cave areas in Spain. The thesis work is completed with the evaluation of the current conservation status of these dwellings through the identification of damages and the proposal of techniques and actions for their restoration. In the same way, the extraordinary indoor environmental comfort conditions of cave-houses are confirmed. All this work finalizes with the proposal of two intervention strategies which seek to leverage the resources of the area and facilitate the original use of these cave-houses as dwellings. / Martínez Antón, A. (2021). Casas cueva de la Comarca del Vinalopó Medio (Alicante) [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/171457

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2014. / This dissertation provides an analysis of the faunal remains excavated from the BSV and BSS layers from Sibudu Cave, Kwa Zulu-Natal. Based on ceramics, presence of daga floors and glass beads found within the layers the BSV and BSS were classified as dating to the Iron Age period (AD 900-1660) . The met hod of analysis follows Driver (2005). The presence of taxa shows that na tural occupants, non-human predators and human occupants accumulated the faunal material in Sibudu Cave. The taxa identified provide strong indication that at this time the site was predominantly occupied by farmers, who hunted wild ungulates and gathered marine taxa. The occupants may have used the site as a temporary shelter between camps or settlements and coastal sites. There is also some indication that the cave was utilised for religious purposes .