This study set out to identify and interpret botanical remains from Historic Cave, Balerno Main Shelter and Balerno Shelter 2 in the Limpopo Province. Botanical remains were identified through comparative collections, and quantified through a raw count and presence analysis. They were interpreted through literature on plant uses in southern Africa. Over 12 500 remains were recovered from Historic Cave, almost 1 500 from Balerno Main Shelter and only five from Balerno Shelter 2. Remains from Historic Cave fell into food, water, storage and muti categories of use. Balerno Main Shelter revealed plants in the water and muti categories. Balerno Shelter 2 had too few remains. The study demonstrated that plant remains can shed light on why cave sites were occupied, as the assemblages reflect different plant uses. The remains from Historic Cave describe a society living and taking refuge in a cave under siege. Balerno Main Shelter may have been used for ritual purposes.

This investigation characterized karstic and nearshore environments of Bermuda to describe 1) behavior and periodicity of cave springs; 2) submarine spring water quality; and 3) nearshore marine seagrass density. Caves can be conduits for groundwater pollution where terrestrial anthropogenic processes leach nutrient enriched water into marine caves springs that flow directly into coastal waters. Seagrass may serve as an environmental indicator due to its susceptibility to anthropogenic pollution. In 2007, environmental water monitoring devices were moored at the entrance of coastal cave springs throughout Bermuda to retrieve data on water quality, flow volume, velocity and direction. Nutrients (nitrate, phosphate, nitrite, and ammonium) and fecal bacteria (Enterococcus spp. and Escherichia coli) were measured in each cave. To qualify a link between terrestrial pollution and the nearshore environment, seagrass density within 100 m from cave entrances were measured. Bermuda caves were tidally influenced. Caves in Harrington Sound showed a delayed tidal flux with smaller ranges due to the restricted tidal inlet. Four caves exhibited a 1:1 in:out flow ratio. Caves with an imbalance flow ratio could be influenced by additional entrances, connection to an alternate water body, or cave geometry. Cave water was similar between caves. Environmental parameters and nutrients changed together, excluding seasonal variations in temperature (17.89 to 22.94 degrees C). Higher nutrients and fecal coliforms within caves indicated sewage may be leaching into the subsurface ground water system. Three seagrass species were evenly distributed within patchy meadows. Densities ranged from 0.91 to 4.5 (on a Braun-Blanket Scale). Higher mean densities in Harrington Sound, suggested the enclosed, protected nature of the sound allowed for reduced wave and current action. Syringodium filiforme decreased in density towards the ocean signifying a direct influence of cave water on seagrass beds. Tidal in and out-flux allowed for a constantly changing environment suitable for a mixture of seagrass species. Higher dissolved inorganic nutrient concentrations were associated with locations lacking seagrass. This study found 1) cave springs connected groundwater and nearshore seagrass ecosystems; and 2) components associated with terrestrial sewage pollution (DIN, HPO4=, and Enterococcus spp.) were higher within caves than nearshore waters.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--West Virginia University, 2003. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xiv, 296 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 241-253).

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The overall goal of this study is to determine the resolution and type of proxy that any one drip site can provide for the determination of past climate. The study examines surface conditions (effective rainfall, temperature, PDSI), cave characteristics (cave geometry, cave air CO2, location), drip site characteristics (drip rate, drip rate response to rainfall), and drip water characteristics (pH, trace element ratios, alkalinity, temperature). The study encompasses two distinctly different caves, Inner Space Cavern (Chapter 2) and Westcave (Chapter 3). A goal of Chapter 2 is to identify drip sites where there is an intra-annual climate signal, which can assist with high resolution paleo-drought reconstructions when extended to speleothem studies. To be considered an intra-annual climate sensitive drip site, a site should display statistically significant correlations between (1) effective rainfall and drip rate; (2) effective rainfall and Mg/Ca; (3) drip rate and Mg/Ca; (4) Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and drip rate; and (5) PDSI and Mg/Ca. These relationships can be explained by the extent to which water flux in the karst overburden influences flow path characteristics, water residence time, and water-rock interactions. The data in Chapter 3 will indicate that (1) variations in trace element/Ca values in cave drip waters are temperature dependent and vary on a seasonal time scale, (2) the standardization of trace element/Ca values allows for between drip site comparisons, (3) the standardization of trace element/Ca values can add statistical power to statistical analyses by increasing the sample size, (4) calcite growth rates follow a seasonal pattern based on variations in surface temperature, (5) a regional drought indicator provides correlation with trace element/Ca values at some drip sites and this relationship is most likely dependent upon temperature. / text

Thesis (M.S.)--Mississippi State University. Department of Geosciences. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Carleton University, 2001. / Also available in electronic format on the Internet.

Inaug.-diss.--Erlangen. / Vita.

M.A. (Anthropology) / Stone circle open-air settlements occur in Namibia and South Africa. Stone circles were occupied during the past 2000 years. It is during this time that livestock and pottery reached southern Africa via a process of either migration/diffusion or both. In southern Africa people have different subsistence strategies such as hunting, gathering and/or herding. In an anthropological context it is sometimes possible to differentiate between people based on linguistics, settlement layouts and ideology. Prior to the introduction of domestic goats/sheep and pottery, people with hunter-gatherer practices inhabited southern Africa. However, to differentiate between the „original‟ hunter-gatherer population, immigrant herders and hunter-gatherers that accepted livestock based on the archaeological record remains challenging. It has been proposed that hunter-gatherers abandoned rock shelters after acquiring caprines and built stone circle settlements to have more space for their flocks. Kuidas Spring is an archaeological site with rock shelters, stone circles, cairns and rock art. I excavated one rock shelter, a stone circle and a cairn, all features date within the last 2000 years. I conducted a typological and technological analyses of the lithics and ostrich eggshell beads. Based on the outcome there seems to be no differences between artefact assemblages. In addition no remains of caprines or cattle were found. The current evidence from Kuidas Spring suggest that it was a seasonal encampment that could have been utilised by both hunter-gatherers and herders, the latter probably reached Namibia through a process of migration and diffusion.

Understanding the mechanisms that control sedimentation in the anchialine caves of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico is vital for interpreting the sedimentary deposits therein. External forcing mechanisms of varying scales, such as eustatic sea-level rise and large storm events, can have a significant influence on the rate and composition of sediment transported and deposited in the cave. Using sediment cores, high resolution radiocarbon dating, cave mapping and continuous aquifer attribute data, it was shown that sedimentation patterns in the cave were not controlled by sea-level rise/fall alone. Overlying vegetation and cave physiography were controlling factors which resulted in sedimentation in the cave being transient in time and space. The coastal aquifer responded to seasonal variations in precipitation but also showed a broad regional response to intense rainfall associated with Hurricane Ingrid in 2013. Due to the extensive hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer, the hydrologic response to Hurricane Ingrid was shorted lived (weeks) while its effect on sedimentation in the cave lasted for months. Sedimentation rates in the cave did not respond to elevated precipitation alone but showed a link with overlying vegetation. In regions of the cave with overlying mangrove forest, sedimentation was significantly higher than areas with tropical forest coverage. Mangrove forests baffled sediment creating an aquitard which resulted in the ponding of meteoric waters and subsequent enrichment in nutrients. Nutrient rich meteoric waters were funneled into cenotes increasing primary productivity for organic matter sediment production. Sedimentary deposits in anchialine caves are subject to punctuated sedimentation as a result of external forcing mechanisms or triggers. In the case of Yax Chen the trigger for sedimentation was not contemporaneous with Holocene sea-level rise. This has important implications for the use of cave sediments as proxies for sea-level research and paleo hurricane studies. / Thesis / Candidate in Philosophy