The challenge to overcome hunger remains one of the most serious confrontations facing humanity today. The threat of starvation is most serious in Africa, where an estimated 33% (138 million) of the population, mainly women and children, suffer from malnutrition. An estimated 680 million people, representing about two thirds of the rural poor, keep livestock, confirming the importance of livestock to their livelihoods. Understanding a live stock system requires description and analysis of its various components and their functional inter-relationships (the systemâs functioning), rather than the description of livestock production alone. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyse the se relationships which are best understood by evaluating the various flows among system components as well as farmersâ management decisions. Farms vary in their resource endowments and in the family circumstances of the owners, with various resource flows and external interactions at the farm level. The biophysical, socio-economic and human elements of a farm are interdependent, and can be analysed as a system from various points of view. The challenges experienced in conducting diagnostic livestock studies are often attributed to the specific characteristics of livestock keeping. Taking cognisance of each farmerâs unique environment and context is central to the framework of farming systems research. No single component of smallholder farms in developing countries has as much potential as ruminant animals to address simultaneously the inter-related factors of under-nutrition, poverty and environmental decline that prevent people from improving their livelihoods. In mixed farming systems, as a result of the interplay among farm families, animals, crops and social systems, the roles and contributions of animals to smallholder agriculture are complex. The projected increased demand for livestock products could result in far-reaching changes in the structure of smallholder livestock production. Livestock never interact with natural resources in isolation, but people as livestock managers play a deciding role and are affected by biophysical, economic, social and policy factors. In this context, an integrated approach to natural resource management is required. Eighty-six smallholder cattle farmers in the Nzhelele District of the Limpopo Province of South Africa were surveyed. The farmers owned between one and 67 cattle, with an average of 10.3 head of cattle per household. The average age at first calving was 34.3 months. The rates of calving, weaning, calf mortality, herd mortality and offtake were 49.4%, 34.2%, 26.1%, 15.6% and 7.8% respectively. Contrary to the situation in many other regions of Southern Africa, commercial enterprise, not social prestige, constituted the main reason for farming with cattle. A marked complimentarity in resource-use i.e. crop residues as animal forage, has been demonstrated. Family size is the single most important factor among all variables studied (farm size, grazing land area, cultivated area and maize production area) that influences herd size for cattle and goats. The most important factor limiting the amount of land cultivated and the area used for maize production is farm size. Farm size has no relationship to the number of cattle or goats owned, as livestock predominantly depend on communal grazing. Animal traction supported by family labour, played a prominent role in land cultivation, due to the small farm size. Empirical studies and reviews from Eastern (Kenya) and Southern (South Africa) Africa has been used to construct a policy framework to guide livestock development in these two regions. Five overarching, integrated elements have been identified. These include food production and security, capacity strengthening for livestock research, livestock and the environment, health and genetics and marketing of livestock and livestock products. The framework that emerges is complex, due to the dramatically increasing demand for livestock products and, as a result, the farreaching changes in the structure of smallholder livestock production. To promote the development of smallholder farmers, different policy options must be assessed and evaluated, bearing in mind the farmersâ likely responses. New policies must include food production and security, capacity strengthening for livestock research, livestock and the environment, health and genetics and marketing of livestock and livestock products. An attempt has been made to translate these into complex, multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral policy frameworks.

The study includes separate papers, which are all linked by their emphasis on the control of blowfly strike, and breech strike in particular. This summary is intended to provide readers with a broad overview of the outcomes of the study. Part I. Management options Chapter 3 dealt with a survey on the prevalence of blowfly strike, and the methods used to combat blowfly strike, in the Rûens area of South Africa. It was clear from the survey that breech strike is the major form of strike in the Western Cape. Mulesing was once again demonstrated to be an effective control method for breech strike. With the termination of mulesing as an acceptable management practice, this chapter highlights the need for alternative methods to be used for blowfly control. Although useful from an IPM perspective, other initiatives that could add to blowfly control failed to have the same marked impact on blowfly strike that mulesing had. Chapter 4 reports on the effect of regular treatment with crystals derived from Aloe spp for potential use as a natural anthelmintic in yearling Merino progeny. The short-term effect of aloe treatment was also considered. Results showed no reduction in the parasite burden when sheep were treated with Aloe. The contribution of this treatment to blowfly IPM is thus limited. Part II. Breeding options Divergent selection for reproduction (defined as the ability of ewes to rear multiple offspring) resulted in lines that differed markedly for their susceptibility to breech strike as a correlated effect (Chapter 5). The line selected for reproduction (High line or H line) was substantially more resistant to breech strike than the line selected for low reproduction (Low line or L line). Chapter 6 reported genetic (co)variances between wrinkle scores and the absence of breech strike in mulesed and unmulesed Merinos. This chapter suggested that breech strike on the underlying scale is partly under genetic control. Indirect selection levelled against skin wrinkle could play a role in reducing the susceptibility of sheep to breech strike in unmulesed sheep only. The significant genetic variation for absence of breech strike remaining in mulesed sheep hints at traits not associated with wrinkles and bare breeches (which are arguably being strived for during the Mules operation) also being important in breech strike resistance genetics. In Chapter 7 subjective scores for dags, breech cover, crutch cover and belly quality were recorded for mature and maiden ewes in the divergently selected lines in an attempt to understand the reasons for the lower susceptibility to breech strike in the H line. Animals in this line displayed desirable breech and crutch characteristics compared to contemporaries selected against reproduction (L line). This generalisation held true for mature reproducing ewes as well as for two-tooth hoggets. Dag scores were accordingly improved in hoggets in the H line. In a further study (Chapter 8) it was shown that autumn and spring dag scores; breech wrinkle score as well as the vertical and horizontal breech bare areas were all heritable in the lines divergently selected for reproduction. Genetic correlations among the breech traits were generally favourable. Yearling live weight was favourably related to breech traits on the genetic level. The only genetic correlation of breech traits with fleece traits that would cause concern was a positive correlation between clean fleece weight and breech wrinkle score. Derived breeding values in this chapter confirmed substantial genetic differences for both dag scores, breech wrinkle score and breech bare area in favour of the H line. Results from Chapter 9 indicated that H line hoggets took substantially shorter time to be crutched than their L line contemporaries, indicating welfare benefits in favour of the former line. Implications The study has shown definite opportunities for the alleviation of breech strike and presents the scientific community with ample opportunities to refine and integrate existing control measures in a comprehensive IPM strategy. However, further research is needed to reach this objective.

Several experiments were conducted to evaluate the ensiling of potato hash (PH) during the period. In the first experiment, a laboratory study was conducted to determine the nutritive value and ensiling potential of PH with poultry litter (PL) and ground hay as absorbents, and whey and molasses as additives. Triplicate samples of PH, PL and hay were collected and sampled for nutritive composition. Mixtures of 800 g PH/kg + 200 g/kg (as is basis) of either PL or hay were produced and treated with: no additive, whey and molasses. The experiment was conducted in a 2 x 3 factorial design (2 absorbents x 3 additives). Mixtures were ensiled in 108 anaerobic jars (1.5L) with 18 jars per treatment, and were stored at 24 - 28°C room temperature. Sampling was done on days 0, 4, 10, 20, 40, 60 and 90 for the determination of fermentation quality and nutritive value of the silage. Further, an aerobic stability test was done on day 90 by exposing silage to air for 5 days. The results showed that PH had 845 g/kg moisture, 11.4 metabolizable energy (ME) MJ/kg, 105 g crude protein (CP) /kg dry matter (DM) and 704 g starch/kg DM. Ensiling PH with ground hay compared to PL as an absorbent, resulted in a better quality silage as indicated by improved fermentation characteristics and chemical composition. Whey and molasses addition improved the nutritive value and the fermentation quality of PH silage but the aerobic stability was not improved. In the second experiment, potato hash silage (treated with no additive, whey and molasses) was produced by mixing 800 g PH/kg with 200 g hay/kg (as is basis), and ensiled in 210 L drums for 90 days, and the fermentation quality of the silages was determined thereafter. Diets containing either potato hash silage (PHS) or maize (Zea mays) silage (MS) were formulated and fed ad libitum to 32 South African Dorper lambs (23.5 ± 0.873 kg live weight) for 63 days. A digestibility study was conducted during the last week of the study. Furthermore, digestibility of the 3 PHS were compared using 9 sheep in a 3 x 3 Latin square design. The untreated potato hash silage (UPHS) was poorly fermented as indicated by higher (P<0.05) concentration of butyric acid, ammonia-N and pH compared to the other silages. Higher (P<0.05) dry matter intake (DMI) and daily gains (218 and 250 g/d) were obtained in lambs fed maize silage diet (MSd) and molasses treated potato hash silage diet (MPHSd) compared to the other diets. Nutrient digestibility was lower (P<0.05) in the UPHS diet compared to the other dietary treatments. The fermentation quality of PH was improved with whey and molasses addition. However, the growth performance was improved (P<0.05) with the MSd and MPHSd, suggesting that MPHSd can replace MSd in lamb diet at 20 % dietary inclusion level without any adverse effect on animal performance. In the third experiment, PH was mixed with wheat bran (70:30) as fed basis and ensiled in 210 L drum for 90 days. Three types of PHS : control, bonsilage forte (BF) and Lalsil Fresh LB(LFLB) were produced. After 3 months, the silos were opened and sampled for fermentation characteristics. Diets were produced by mixing PHS with soybean meal (90:10) as fed basis and a digestibility study was conducted using five South African Mutton Merino rams (37.2 ± 2.21 kg liveweight) per diet. Inoculating PHS with BF and LFLB reduced (P<0.05) pH, WSC, butyric acid and ammonia N while increasing the concentration of lactic acid compared to the control. A higher concentration of acetic acid was obtained with LFLB inoculation, which improved the aerobic stability of silage compared to the other silages. Intakes of dry (DM) and organic matter (OM) were not affected. Gross energy (GE) and CP of silage were improved (P<0.05) with BF and LFLB inoculations. Inoculants increased CP, GE and amylase treated neutral detergent fibre (aNDF) digestibility, but did not alter DM or OM digestibility. Inoculating silage with BF improved (P<0.05) digestibility of ether extract compared to the other treatments, and both inoculants improved (P<0.05) N intake and retention compared to the control. It is concluded that BF and LFLB improved silage fermentation and diet digestibility of CP, aNDF and gross energy. Inoculation with LFLB improved aerobic stability whilst BF inoculation reduced it. In the fourth experiment, totally mixed rations (TMRs) that contained 804 g PH/kg were ensiled in 1.5 L jars with or without Lalsil Fresh Lactobacillus buchneri (LB) for 3 months. Jars were opened on days, 0, 3, 7, 10, 21, 45, 60 and 90 of ensiling and sampled for fermentation and chemical composition determinations. Aerobic stability was determined on day 90 of ensiling. Treatments were LB treated TMR (LB-TMR) and untreated TMR (U-TMR). Furthermore, three TMRs that contained 801 g/kg of either maize (280 g DM/kg) or PH (as fed basis) were ensiled for 90 days in 210 L drums for lamb growth and digestibility studies. The ensiled TMRs were: Maize TMR (M-TMR), U-TMR and LB-TMR and were fed to 24 South African Dorper lambs (20± 0.152 kg live weight) that were allocated in 8 lambs per diet. Inoculation with LB decreased (P<0.05) pH, butyric acid, NH3-N, fibre fractions, CO2 production and yeast population while lactic acid, acetic acid and propionic acid concentrations were increased (P<0.05) compared to U-TMR silage. The ensiled LBTMR was aerobically more stable than U-TMR silage as indicated by lower (P<0.05) CO2 production and yeast population and higher concentrations of acetic acid. Higher (P<0.05) feed intake, average daily gain (ADG), nutrient digestibility and N retention occurred in LB-TMR silage compared to the other silages. It was concluded that LB is effective in producing a better quality PHS, as indicated by improved fermentation, aerobic stability, lamb growth performance and digestibility of LB-TMR silage.

Coffee farming has been a major foundation of Kenyaâs rural highland economy for the last four decades or so. Over 600,000 smallholder farmers organized in 579 cooperatives are engaged in the subsector. Coffee was a major source of income, employment and food security until the late 1980âs. Though Kenya produces some of the finest world coffee, the collapse of the International Commodity Agreement (ICA) on coffee and entry into the world market by major producers like Vietnam marked a near collapse of Kenyaâs coffee. Exports fell by over 50% between the year 2000 and 2010. This was accompanied by significant loss of productivity (declined to a meagre 200 kg/ha from 600 kg/ha). The situation has contributed to poor living standards in coffee growing areas. Interestingly, there are no credible alternative investments to merit the allocation of constrained farm resources to replace coffee growing. In addition, there are concerns that the current resource base can no longer support enhanced productivity. This study used several research designs to investigate the performance of smallholder coffee agroforestry systems around Mount Kenya. More specifically, enterprise adoption and adaptation practices in the event of increased or decreased coffee production were researched. The evolution of coffee agroforestry systems was also evaluated and management of soil fertility determined. Using coffee yields data obtained from 180 smallholder coffee farmers by stratified random sampling techniques, coffee farm typologies were identified. These farm typologies/categories were labeled as increasing, decreasing and constant - representing their historical trends in coffee production. These farms were then used to investigate current productivity behavior. Simple descriptive statistics such as means, range, counts, enterprise scoring, diversity analysis pair wise correlations and regressions were used to compare farmer enterprise intensification strategies. Results have showed that farms that are decreasing coffee production, though had smaller land sizes are not significantly different from those in the coffee increasing category. Further results showed similarities in farmer enterprise diversification strategies. Coffee was nonetheless declining in smaller farms compared to farm sizes where it was increasing. Results also showed that farms with increasing coffee yields are associated with productive milk enterprises. These farms appear to afford and benefit from larger amounts of fertilizer and manure application. Coffee declining farms view banana and maize as likely alternatives to coffee, perhaps in a strategy to secure household food security. The study has showed that land size, coffee production (number of bushes, cherry yields/Ha), livestock units, agroforestry trees, banana, maize value and nutrient inputs (manure and fertilizer) and labour costs are important factors to assess coffee farms productivity and distinguish farm types. Results have showed the importance of creating more awareness among policy makers in order to promote enterprises that are of interest to farmers. This research also investigated tree diversity presently maintained by smallholders showing a shift in coffee cultivation practices. Trees on farm are traditionally appreciated for product benefits such as timber, fuel wood and food. They are also important for enhanced farm biodiversity and environmental services such as enhanced nutrient cycling. This study applied diversity analysis techniques such as species accumulation curves, rènyi diversity profiles and species rank abundance, to investigate farm tree diversity. At least 190 species were recorded from 180 coffee farms. For all the species enumerated, alpha diversity (H0) = 5.25 and Hâ = 0.89. Results showed that the 10 and 25 most abundant species comprise 75% and 91% of tree individuals present on farm, respectively. Results suggest that, though there is high abundance of tree individuals on farms they are of less richness and evenness. Species richness per farm was calculated at 17 species (15- 19.2, P = 0.95). Grevillea robusta was highly ranked in terms of relative density and dominance across surveyed farms at proportions of 41- 42%. Tree species basal area distribution showed that fruit trees such as, Persea americana, Mangifera indica and timber species such as, Cordia africana, Vitex keniensis and Croton macrostachyus are the most dominant but are of lower relative density. Species diversity analysis by coffee agro-ecological zones revealed that the upper-midland (UM) 3 is ranked significantly higher than UM2 and UM1. Results have implied that farmers with larger quantities of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) also retain more species diversity than farmers with stagnated production even though this evidence was inconclusive. Skewed patterns of species heterogeneity and structure among smallholder coffee plots provide indicators of divergent species cultivation. Tree species richness distribution between farms is strongly influenced by agro-ecological zones and presence of coffee cultivation. Only 22.5% of agroforestry tree abundance on farm was categorized as indigenous. Tree basal area ranking implied that fruit and native timber species are retained longer on coffee farms. Finally, this study assessed the implications of recent changes in coffee cultivation on soil fertility management. It was hypothesized that significant soil nutrient exports have occurred from coffee systems and that present nutrient prevalence are unknown and likely to be poorly managed. The purpose of this research was to inform concerns that with poor soil fertility prevalence, coffee systems face a danger to deteriorate to low production systems. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was used to analyse soil constituent properties for some 189 soil samples collected on 94 farms (within coffee plots). One third of the samples were used to build calibration models giving correlation coefficients between measured and partial least square (PLS) predicted soil properties. Correlations were strong (r > 0.70) except for P, Zn and Na demonstrating the potential of NIR to accurately predict soil constituents. Principal component analysis (PCA) was then used to develop soil nutrient indices (principal components scores) to serve as representative soil nutrient prevalence indicators. PC scores were also used as dependent variables in regression analysis. Collected data is robust to show that soil organic C, total N and probably P were most deficient across the coffee sites surveyed. Farmer nutrient application practices showed wide variability of fertilizer and manure use. Manure application is less than fertilizer and negatively correlated to farm size. Estimation of manure use per household was however challenging due to quantification and timing aspects of application. Collated evidence showed that farmers with increasing coffee production were more likely to afford larger fertilizer and manure application. Overall results point out that smallholders deliberately concentrate nutrient application on farm enterprises with good market performance. Coffee cultivation has in the past benefited from fertilizer credit facilities from farmer cooperative movements and government bilateral programmes. Declined coffee production is therefore seriously jeopardizing the amount of fertilizer that can be loaned to farmers. In conclusion, this study has identified a number of factors associated with smallholder decision making, resource use and enterprise adoption and adaptation behavior within coffee agroforestry systems of Mount Kenya. Research findings have allowed recommendations to be made on how best to promote farmer resource use, understand farmer decision making and enterprise choices that are of interest to farmers. The study has contributed to knowledge of farmer livelihood strategies when managing coffee farms in conditions of reduced profitability.

The focus of this research is a localised action research framework, or more specifically, the development of action-research theories based on experiences in a South African Landcare project. The Bergville Landcare project, implemented from 2000 to 2005, was aimed at developing conservation agriculture (CA) practices in a community of resource-poor farmers. These attempts culminated in the development of a soft-system platform on which participatory action research methodologies and techniques could be based in order to facilitate adult and action learning. The following six strategies were identified for the development of such a platform: awareness, local institution building, training-of-trainers, farmer-to-farmer extension, onfarm experimentation and partnerships. The main action-research methodology used to manage these strategies is monitoring and evaluation (M&E). The approach selected for this research is one in which multiple methodologies are deemed the most appropriate for developing theories within the paradigm of constructivism and interactive agricultural science, i.e. a combination of grounded theory, action research and soft-systems methodology (SSM). The design of the research process resulted in effectively using and analysing the different data sources within the following four phases: a) theory as an initial guide to design and data collection; b) application of initial theories in a Landcare project; c) theory as part of an iterative process of data collection and analysis; and d) gaining theoretical and practical insights into the focal research problems. A number of theories relating to action research were seen as critical in the formulation of the process which was applied in the Bergville project. Action research, experiential learning and action learning formed the foundation of the action research approach which was conducted with resource-poor farmers in the Bergville project. In a practical sense, action research was seen as the âumbrella methodologyâ, applied in harmony with other methodologies, such as SSM, the Farming Systems Approach (FSA), Farmer Participatory Research (FPR), Farmer Field School (FFS) and M&E. The âaction research processâ applied in the Bergville project was used as the so called âActingâ phase, and was the primary data-source for the research process. The various documents and data used, i.e. project reports, a personal research diary, significant changes and M&E findings, are described comprehensively. A convergent interviewing process was used to obtain an indication of how sustainable the activities and results of the project were. The multi-methodological data analysis and theory development process proved to be successful in establishing local theories for practical application. Cognitive maps were used in combination with a general SSM framework to stimulate data analyses, reflection, learning and ultimately theorising. Three cognitive maps were developed in which local theories for on-farm experimentation, training-of-trainers, farmer-to-farmer extension, local institutionalisation and M&E are explicated. Since the cognitive map is a structuring (conceptualisation) of a complex situation, they were discussed in detail in an attempt to improve their understanding. The most suitable approach for a synthesis of the theorising results appeared to be the integration of the results into an improved theoretical framework addressing the main research questions of this study. This improved framework proved to be that of a systems model which included the major phases of the action-research cycle, and this was used to describe the proposed methodologies and techniques. The proposed six phases of this model are: a) Stakeholder analysis, b) Diagnosis (Situation analysis), c) Planning strategically, d) Implementing and managing, e) Learning and adapting, and f) Exit strategy. This model provides a means of creating a culture of learning that would allow people to be innovative and interactive in the management of natural resources and to collectively care for and manage these resources in a sustainable manner.