Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The domesticated apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) has been distributed into diverse climatic conditions worldwide for commercial production of fruit. Apple trees need exposure to cold temperatures, referred to as chill unit (CU) accumulation during winter, in order for budbreak to occur promptly and uniformly after winter. In warmer production areas the application of dormancy breaking chemicals has enabled successful production of high chilling requiring apple cultivars in suboptimal environmental conditions. In the Western Cape region of South Africa it is common orchard practice to apply dormancy breaking chemicals after winter in order to stimulate vegetative growth. If this is not done prolonged dormancy symptoms (PDS) are experienced which include extended rest, less synchronised breaking of buds and reduced branching. An increasing awareness of both global warming and the negative effects associated with the use of chemical sprays (for both pest and disease resistance and growth regulation) has resulted in the need to breed cultivars better adapted to current and future environmental conditions. The breeding of new cultivars using conventional breeding methods is a time consuming process, especially in perennial tree species with a long juvenile phase such as apple. The implementation of marker-assistedbreeding (MAB) and selection (MAS) will enable the selection of favourable genotypes at a very early seedling stage. Although markers linked to genes involved in disease resistance for a variety of known apple pathogens have been identified and are already in use in breeding programs, the genetic determinants of dormancy related characteristics residing within the bud itself iii (endodormancy) are poorly understood. This hampers the genetic improvement of such characters. Although this study focused on time of initial vegetative budbreak IVB, there are various other characteristics that can be associated with dormancy, such as position and number of budbreak and budbreak duration.

yes / Non-lethal weapons (NLWs) are explicitly designed and primarily employed to incapacitate personnel or material whilst minimising collateral damage to property and the environment. Existing NLWs include rubber and plastic bullets, entangling nets, chemical sprays such as OC and CS gas, and electrical stunning devices such as the `Taser¿ gun. New NLWs are on the way, which will include acoustic and microwave weapons, non-lethal landmines, malodorants, and sophisticated weapons developed through rapid advances in neuroscience and the genomics revolution. Most analysts would agree that there is a `legitimate¿ role for non-lethal weapons, both for civil and military applications. However there is considerable disagreement as to the operational effectiveness of NLWs, and the threat such weapons pose to arms conventions and international law. As usual, a balance has to be achieved where the benign advantages of developing and deploying non-lethal weapons are not outweighed by their more malign effects. In particular, emerging non-lethal technologies offer an increasing opportunity for the suppression of civil dissent and control of populations ¿ these are sometimes referred to as the `technologies of political control¿. There is a continuing need for sustained and informed commentary to such developments which highlights the impact and threats that these technologies pose to civil liberties and human rights. Because the last BNLWP Report was produced in August 2001, this edition is somewhat longer than usual so that key developments since then can be highlighted and summarised. Future BNLWRP reports will be published three times a year, and we welcome material to be considered for inclusion.