This thesis deals with a disturbance which broke out in April of 1864 when a group of Chilcotin Indians massacred seventeen workmen on a trail being built from Bute Inlet to the interior of British Columbia, The main endeavours of this thesis are three-fold. It seeks to provide an accurate account of the main events: the killings and the para-military expeditions which resulted from them. It attempts to establish as far as possible the causes of the massacres. Finally, it examines the attitudes of whites towards the Indians as revealed in the actions they took and the views they expressed in connection with the uprising and the resulting expeditions to the Chilcotin territory. Published and unpublished primary source material has given a detailed and verifiable picture of the events of the Chilcotin Uprising, and of various background events. It has revealed, besides, the verbal reactions of many whites and even of Indians who were involved. To seek the underlying causes of the uprising and to get a clear view of white attitudes it has been necessary to probe both Chilcotin and European backgrounds. The studies of others have helped to shed light on Chilcotin society prior to the time of the uprising, on European thought as it developed in the Nineteenth Century, and on the general development of relationships between the white man and the Indian in British Columbia up to the period with which this thesis deals. The causes, of the uprising I have summarized under five main headings. The "chief motivating factor" was the rash threat "by a white man to bring sickness on the Indians. The "predisposing causes" were events and circumstances which had no direct connection with the Chilcotins' decision to kill the whites but which must have helped to shape their adverse attitudes towards the whites. The "aggravating grievances" were a number of occurrences directly connected with the trail-building enterprise which may be regarded as grievances from the Chilcotins’ viewpoint, aggravating the harm done by the threat made against the Chilcotins. The "material incentive" of plunder played its part in encouraging the uprising. Finally, there were a number of "facilitating factors" which made the uprising possible—factors making for the initial weakness of the whites and the strength of the Chilcotins. The attitudes of the whites towards the Indians as revealed during the period of the Chilcotin Uprising are difficult to summarize without distortion. But five main points have been made in this thesis: (1) The whites at this time displayed, in varying forms, a universal confidence in the inherent superiority of European civilization, (2) Only to a limited extent can we identify particular attitudes expressed towards the Indians with particular classes or groups of colonial society. (3) Prejudice and questionings regarding white actions towards the Indian both emerged as a result of the uprising. There is evidence that there were many whites in Nineteenth Century British Columbia who not only used individual judgement in making generalizations about the Indian but were willing to "test their stereotypes against reality" when they had dealings with particular Indians or Indian groups. (4) There was no really general fear for personal safety among the Europeans during the Chilcotin Uprising. (5) As a general rule we may say that those whom circumstances cast in the role of adversaries of the Chilcotins came to adopt increasingly hostile attitudes towards the Indians. Those who were less directly involved or who were cast in roles necessitating some understanding of the Chilcotins tended to adopt less hostile attitudes towards them. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

Capability inventory surveys have been conducted in the province for several years. Inherent in this program is the collection of baseline data on the physical environment of the area. The capability information (CLI) is valuable for land resource planning, especially in areas where little resource development has occurred. The mechanism of collection and the utility of capability data were examined in the Chilcotin area of British Columbia in an attempt to develop a land use plan. A reconnaissance terrain survey was conducted. The survey relied heavily on air photo interpretation and used landforms as the physical base. Five terrain types, based on soil and other landscape characteristics were identified and characterized in the study area. Detailed ground information was collected from a representative site on each terrain type. The information was used to characterize the terrain type and make resource capability interpretations for agriculture, forestry, wildlife and recreation. The capability of these resource sectors were evaluated for the purpose of preparing a land use plan for the terrain types within the area. The plan identified integrated resource use as the optimal type of resource development. The study provides a guide to integrated management of the area. Resource conflicts were identified and supplemental information requirements were noted. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Wetlands have been considered an important component of wintering moose (Alces alces andersonii) habitat in the West-Chilcotin Region of British Columbia. This study evaluates the importance of wetlands, particularly the ecotone between forests and wetlands and identifies important cover types for wintering moose. Additional baseline data regarding food habits and home range sizes are included. Two hypotheses were tested in this study; that moose habitat use was independent of cover type, and that moose habitat use was random with respect to distance from forest/wetland borders. The data in this study led to rejection of both these hypotheses. Moose used spruce (Picea glauca) wetlands and spruce forests more frequently than expected if use were random. Moose concentrated primarily within 100 m of the forest/wetland edge and virtually did not use areas greater than 200 m from the edge. The combination of food and cover in areas of spruce and edge is likely a major factor determining habitat use of wintering moose. Average home range sizes of radio-collared moose ranged from 20.7 to 45.2 km². Bog birch (Betula qlandulosa) , lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and willows (Salix spp.) were the most frequently consumed forages. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

An ecological classification of high elevation range provides a framework for proper resource management. Alpine and subalpine vegetation in the Southern Chilcotin Mountains was studied to characterize the plant communities of the high elevation rangelands in the southern interior of British Columbia. The impacts of grazing on the structure and composition of the vegetation were evaluated. Two hundred and thirty-nine sites were sampled in a 10,000 ha area. Plots were selected randomly within homogeneous units delineated on 1:30,000 (40 chain) air photos prior to the field season. These were classified on the basis of physiognomy, dominant species and environmental conditions. The following nineteen community types were described: Picea engelmanii-Abies lasiocarpa forest, Pinus albicaulis-Juniperus communis forest, Salix bare layi-Carex aquatilis shrub wetland, Salix barrattiana alpine shrub wetland, Salix brachycarpa-Salix barclayi shrubland, Salix brachycarpa-Festuca spp. shrubfieId, Salix brachycarpa-Phleum alpinum shrubfieId, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi-Amelanchier alnifolia dry shrubland, Salix cascadensis dwarf willow shrubland, Dryas octopetala fellfield, Dryas octopetala-Festuca altaica alpine grassland, Carex aquatilis/rostrata wetland, Carex nigricans late snowbed meadow, Festuca altaica-Festuca brachyphylla meadow, Festuca brachyphylla meadow, Festuca brachyphylla-Phleum alpinum meadow, Phleum alpinum-Carex phaeocephala meadow, Koeleria cristata dry meadow, and crustose lichen rock-land or talus terrain unit. Changes in the structure and composition of plant communities in response to grazing pressure were evident on the more heavily used valley bottom meadow community types. After many years of use, Festuca altaica appears to have, been eliminated from heavily grazed meadows, there is a decrease in the height of the vegetation, an increase in the exposed bare ground, and an increase in the abundance of weedy species in all community types. Many of the community types described from this region are floristically and/or ecologically comparable with plant communities described from other high elevation areas in British Columbia, the southern Yukon, and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis examines the ethnobotany, physiology, anatomy, and nutritional value of edible lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Douglas ex Louden var. latifolia Engelm. ex S. Watson ) cambium. Many First Peoples of the Pacific Northwest historically used lodgepole pine cambium. It was so popular among interior First Peoples of British Columbia that it was considered a universal food. Even though harvesting and consumption of pine cambium is diminishing in popularity today, I was able to learn from some Tsilhqot‟in First Peoples on Redstone Reserve who had prior experience with pine cambium. Nutritional analysis of lodgepole pine cambium revealed the tissues to be high in protein and sugar as well as a suite of micronutrients, which contribute to overall immunity and electrolyte balance. While lodgepole pine cambium is considered a sweet, seasonal treat by many First Peoples it is evident through my analysis that there are added nutritional benefits beyond the pleasure of consumption. This research illustrates an important case study of an endangered traditional food, which can be integrated into modern diets today. It also explores the integration of multiple disciplines of knowledge to inform this subject matter, providing multiple dimensions to understanding cambium production, timing of harvest, and benefit of consumption. / Graduate

The objectives of the following research project were to 1) determine the optimum time and intensity of harvesting a wetland meadow in terms of forage yield, forage nutritive quality, and plant vigor; 2) to determine the carrying capacity of a wetland meadow under different seasons of use and; 3) to contribute to the development of a wetland classification scheme by characterizing a wetland meadow. The study site was located on the Fraser Plateau about 100 kms west of Williams Lake, British Columbia, at an elevation of 1250 m. Meadow water table, water pH, water conductivity, water calcium ion concentration, and soil temperatures were measured twice per month. The meadow and surrounding upland soils were classified. The species composition and foliar cover of 5 vegetation zones were described for the meadow and surrounding upland area. To asses meadow productivity and forage nutritive quality under different seasons of use 6 harvesting periods were employed, mid May to mid July, June and July, mid June to mid August, July and August and mid May through August. The standing crop seasonal trend was monitored by analysing forage samples collected twice monthly. Clipping samples were oven dried and weighed to determine harvest yields. The crude protein content of the samples was determined by a microkjeldhal technique. Phosphorus content was assessed by a vanadomolybdate method. Calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, copper, iron and manganese contents were determined by spectrophotometry. The relative plant stored food reserves were assessed by an etiolation experiment. Soil - vegetation plugs were collected from all harvest period treatment plots as well as undipped control plots and placed in a dark controlled environment chamber. The etiolated growth was collected, weighed and used to compare the relative plant stored food reserves among different harvest period treatments. A stepwise simple regression procedure was used to compare the seasonal trend data and a stepwise multiple regression procedure was used to compare the different harvest period treatments. A 2 step Student Newman Keuls multiple range test was performed on the etiolation experiment sod reserve indices and harvest treatment total yields data. Meadow water table, water pH, water calcium ion content, water conductivity, soil temperatures at 10 cm and soil temperatures at 50 cm ranged between +29 and -2 cm, 7.0 and 7.4, 14 and 89 ppm, 249 and 840 mmho/cm, 6.9 and 11.2°C and 6.8 and 10.6°C respectively. Meadow soils included a Typic Humisol - Mesic Humisol - Terric Mesic Humisol complex, a calcareous Gleyed Humic Regosol, a calcareous Gleyed Regosol, an Orthic Humic Gleysol and a Gleyed Gray Luvisol. The upland soil was an Orthic Gray Luvisol. The 5 vegetation zones were named according to the dominant plant species. Included were a Carex rostrata zone, a Carex - Betula glandulosa zone, a Carex praegracilis - Juncus balticus zone, a Salix - Betula glandulosa zone, arid a Pinus contorta - Calamagrostis rubescens zone. Productivity and nutritional data collection was restricted to the Carex rostrata zone. The standing crop varied from 1 to 6 mt/ha. The nutrient content of the standing crop varied between 0.35 and 0.51% of tissue, 2.1 - 5.7, 1.0 - 1.5% of tissue, 0.17 - 0.26% of tissue, 133 - 326 ppm, and 49 and 165 ppm for the calcium, calcium - phosphorus ratio, potassium, magnesium, manganese and iron contents respectively. The meadow forage crude protein, phosphorus, zinc and copper contents remained un- changed at 10.1% of tissue, 0.14% of tissue, 30 ppm and 11 ppm through the season. The 8 cm July and August harvest period produced the greatest treatment yield, 6807 kg/ha, followed by the 8 cm - mid June to mid August harvest treatment yield. The least productive treatments were the 8 and 23 cm harvests during the period mid May to mid August. The nutrient content of the meadow forage subjected to the 10 different harvest treatments varied as follows: crude protein - 8.3 to 12.0% of tissue, calcium - 0.368 to 0.646% of tissue, phosphorus - 0.21 to 0.27% of tissue, calcium: phosphorus ratio - 1.4 to 3.6, zinc - 35 to 46 ppm, copper - 13 ppm, potassium - 1.7 to 2.4% of tissue, magnesium-0.19 to 0.23% of tissue, manganese - 194 to 271 ppm and iron - 94 to 119 ppm. Repeated clipping increased the meadow forage crude protein, phosphorus, zinc, copper, potassium, manganese slightly, and iron contents. Repeated clipping reduced the meadow forage calcium: phosphorus ratio. The stored food reserves of the meadow vegetation was found not to vary with harvest treatment. Based on productivity, nutritive quality and plant vigot data, grazing during the period mid June to mid August and close utilization (an 8 cm as opposed to a 23 cm stubble height) appears most appropriate. Wet meadow hay should be cut as early as possible. The theoretical safe maximum carrying capacity is 23 AUM'S/ha (20 AUM'S/ ha when grazed to an 8 cm stubble height during the period mid June to mid August). The meadow characterization and productivity data will be useful to person(s) undertaking the task of formulating a classification scheme for British Columbia wetland meadows. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

This study investigates the relationships between vegetation and salinity and sodicity in wetland meadows in the Chilcotin region of British Columbia. Eleven vegetation communities and one group of releves with no vegetation were identified using cluster analysis. An exchangeable sodium per cent of 15 and an electrical conductivity of 4 mmhos/cm were found to be appropriate boundaries for distinguishing between saline and sodic tolerant and intolerant vegetation communities. Some salt tolerant species and communities occurred in fresh conditions; however, intolerant species and communities were rarely found in saline or sodic conditions. Most meadows have soils that are low in salts, but 20 per cent had a high electrical conductivity and 18 per cent had a high exchangeable sodium per cent. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate