Adolescent development and adjustment are matters of serious concern not only for parents but also to those involved in education and in the welfare of young people as well as in the progress of our society. Youth represent the energy of the present and hope for the future. However, very little is known about the needs, attitudes, interests and growth potentials of black adolescents in South Africa due to the scarcity of research done in this field. The broad aim of the present study, was to identify and gain understanding of the social sources of influence on adolescent cognitive development as reflected in their value system, their reported role models and anti-models; and. their sources of information about these models. The sample consisted of 409 std 9 female (N = 218) and male (N = 196) pupils selected from two High Schools in Umlazi (N = 203), one High School in KwaMashu (N = 88) and two high schools in KwaNgwanase (N = 118). Subjects from Umlazi and KwaMashu constituted the urban sample (N = 291) and subjects from KwaNgwanase constituted the rural sample (N = 118). Subjects responses to a questionaire were content analysed and the following prominent values were discernible : Educational, Occupational, Altruistic and to a lesser extent Material. The most salient models and antimodels reported were people between the ages of 26 to 35 years, non-relatives, who were known to subjects though Personal Contact. Models were admired mostly for their Social Attributes. The anti-models were rejected because of their negative Social Characteristics. Admired models belonged mostly to the category of Service or Other professions. Antimodels belonged mostly to the category of the unemployed. Sex differences in subjects' responses were observed. Minor differences in the responses of subjects from different geographical, parental educational and occupational backgrounds also appeared to exist. The work presented in this study represents the present researcher's original input.However, quotations and other theoretical information from literature have been used and acknowledged to highlight and clarify major concepts persued by the researcher. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1991.

The ocular complications of vitamin A deficiency have been known for many years, however, recent studies have suggested that marginal vitamin A status enlarges the risk of common childhood infections and increases mortality. It is therefore important to assess the vitamin A status, and some of its consequences, in children who are most likely to be at risk for vitamin A deficiency as this has important implications for promoting the health of children and for formulating appropriate primary health care policies. In South Africa very little data is available on vitamin A nutrition of communities; therefore one of the objectives of this research programme was to document the vitamin A status of African children who, because of historical inequities, are most likely to be at risk for deficiency. Sound, epidemiologically based surveys of vitamin A intake and body levels were conducted in a typical established township (using dietary intake as the measuring tool) and in a typical peri-urban informal settlement (using serum retinol and conjunctival impression cytology as the measuring tools). These studies revealed that the majority (97%) of children living in the established township surveyed had an adequate intake of vitamin A, whereas 44% of the children in the informal settlement had low serum retinol levels (20 ug/dL), and 18% had insufficient vitamin A, as assessed by 2 abnormal disc specimens, using the conjunctival impression cytology test. In order to investigate the interrelationsnips between vitamin A, other micronutrients and some risk factors, an analysis was undertaken of anthropometry, parasite infestation and blood concentrations of vitamin E, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, albumin, haemaglobin, serum iron and ferritin and percent transferrin saturation. Significant positive correlations were found between serum retinol and all the biochemical indicators of iron metabolism studied except for serum ferritin. Ninety one percent of the children sampled were infested with parasites. These results highlight the fact that in this population close interconnections exist among nutrients and suggest that attempts at correcting vitamin A deficiency in such communities should be based on comprehensive intervention programmes rather than on single nutrient replacement. The impact of infections on blood levels of vitamin A was investigated in African children with severe measles. In addition, substances related to vitamin A metabolism such as other micronutrients (zinc, vitamin E) and proteins (retinol binding protein, prealbumin, albumin) were measured in serum. In addition the changes induced in these substances by vitamin A supplementation (offered in a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial) were studied. Serum retinol as well as the other nutrients measured were significantly reduced early in the exanthem in measles patients as compared to healthy controls. Vitamin A and prealbumin levels on day 8 (of the intervention trial) were significantly increased in the supplemented group compared to the placebo group. vitamin A levels in serum correlated with those of retinol binding protein (RBP), prealbumin and zinc. These findings strengthen the hypothesis that hyporetinaemia during measles is the consequence of impaired mobilisation of retinol stores from the liver. The effect of reversing the temporary lowering of serum retinol concentrations during acute measles infections by supplementation with vitamin A was investigated in a hospital based, randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial. The two groups were comparable in known covariates of measles severity : weight/age centiles; overcrowding; rash; total 90% of the patients had blood lymphocytes; serum levels pre-albumin, RBP, vitamins A and E. of zinc, albumin, hyporetinaemia. Integrated Morbidity Scores ( IMS) derived from diarrhoea, herpes and respiratory tract infection (radiologically confirmed) were assigned on day 8, at 6 weeks and 6 months - these were reduced by 82%, 61% and 85% respectively in the supplemented group. This was mainly due to reduced respiratory tract infection. There was one death in the placebo group. At 6 weeks there was significant weight gain in the supplemented group. Despite the selected sample, attention to multiple covariates enhances the validity of the data obtained and supports the current WHO recommendations for vitamin A supplementation during measles. There are several mechanisms by which vitamin A is thought to have its effect of reducing morbidity, one of which is by improving immune responsiveness. This particular mechanism has not been adequately studied in children; most of the studies having been conducted in animals. The effect of vitamin A supplementation on selected factors of immunity in African children with complicated measles was therefore investigated during the randomized double-blind, placebo controlled, intervention trial described above. Placebo and treated groups had similar baseline characteristics. In the treated group there was a significant increase in total number of lymphocytes (day 42, P = .05) and measles IgG antibody concentrations (day 8, p = .02), both of which have consistently been shown to correlate more closely with outcome in measles than other immunological, clinical and radiological factors. Interleukin-2 (IL-2) and plasma complement (C3 ) values were unaffected by vitamin A supplement.at.Lon , These findings reinforce results from animal studies which show that the pathways of vitamin A activity in decreasing morbidity and mortality are partly founded on selective immunopotentiation. In conclusion epidemiological and biochemical methods which were used to assess the vitamin A status of African children in South Africa revealed that overt vitamin A deficiency is not a Public health issue to the extent it is in the poor rice eating nations of the world. Marginal vitamin A deficiency is however prevalent in informal settlements. Interventions to reverse this marginal vitamin A deficiency should be incorporated in comprehensive programmes to ensure food security. Infections such as measles which increase utilisation and inhibit mobilisation from body stores are damaging to vitamin A homeostasis in the individual. The morbidity associated with measles can be reversed by high dose vitamin A supplementation during the acute phase of the infection. Improving immune responsiveness is one of the likely paths of vitamin A activity in decreasing morbidity from measles. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1993.

M.A. (Psychology) / Post-traumatic Stress Disorder has been used to describe an individual's reaction to an event "outside the range of usual human experience". South African society is one fraught with violence, to the point where authors have contended that South Africans have become accustomed to a "culture of violence". Children and Adults are victims of this violence, whether they be directly or indirectly affected by it. In such an unstable society the school can provide children with a setting which offers them stability and a normative influence. In order to make the school effective in the aid it offers its students, teachers have to be assisted in developing and strengthening already existing con-structive ways of detecting and handling of children's problems. Teachers themselves also need to be provided with support in order to assist them with their own personal problems. This study examines the effects of trauma on the teacher-pupil relationship by providing Work, for teachers in order to learn from them and guide them in the assistance they give to children who have been profoundly affected by the violence in their environment being direct or indirect victims thereof. It is my hope that this exploratory study will broaden the understanding of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and provide useful guidelines in an understanding of the impact violence has on children.

M.A. (Psychology) / One of the most perturbing facets of South Africa's post apartheid communal existence is the high incidence of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) amongst the disadvantaged communities. It is noteworthy that the incidence of PTSD amongst urbanised black youth is so high, that it can be described as an epidemic. Since therapeutic resources are limited or absent in many environments , it is essential to develop a project to cater for the needs of traumatised communities. Such programs should be cost effective and must relate to education within a psychological context. Following a diligent study of the literature, it was decided that a theoretical behavioural project be developed which utilises a psycho educational context that can be applied to black youth with PTSD.

M. Ed. / In South Africa many people have been directly or indirectly involved in criminal and/or violent acts either as victims or as perpetrators. Research has shown that violence in its various forms, be it political, criminal or domestic, is endemic in South Africa (Stravou, 1993; Turton, Straker & Moosa, 1992). According to Gibson, Mogale and Friedler (1991:1), political violence, especially in South African townships, has been enacted between the ANC and Inkatha and this violence is regarded as an extension of the years of a violent state of repression. As violence escalates it has become impossible to make a distinction between political and criminal violence. Rauch (1993:11), who points out that "it should also be borne in mind that ordinary criminal violence is not always distinguishable from political violence", supports this statement. Stravou (1993:3) echoes this in his observation that ordinary criminal violence can be caused by political factors, alcohol abuse, poverty, unemployment and dangerous living conditions. As both criminal and political violence increase in the townships, domestic and criminal acts against women and children in South Africa are rated the highest in the world (TV News, 13 May 1999). This is an indication that violence has not only destroyed individual lives, but also affected communities, children and family institutions. This notion is emphasized by Klaaste (no date, cited by Phetla 1998:31), when he stated that "The violence in this country, particularly in the townships, has destroyed more than just property and structures, it has destroyed the emotional institutions, the very substance of family life and society. In the past, there was always a very strong understanding of hierarchy, of who was who in the family". However, today the anchors have been destroyed, and there is nothing to hold many families together. This is a cause for concern, because families are the fabric of communities and societies. As families are affected, children who are the future generation of society, are also continually exposed to this violence. Children become victims because of their vulnerability and exposure to insecure and unstable environments in which they live. Many schools, which these children attend, were historically regarded as stabilizing influences on the social environment, providing necessary support and guidance for them have now turned into war zones. Young learners have to contend with guns and knives on a daily basis, an indication of how endemic the violence is in the learning environment. The Star (Thursday, May 12 1999) reported that a school principal was shot dead and her car taken in front of her learners. TV news (13 June 1999) reported that "another teacher has been brutally murdered in front of her grade one class by unknown gunmen". This situation occurs within the environment where children live, and appears to have serious repercussions later in their lives. Exposure to and involvement in escalating violence, both in their homes and neighbourhood, can lead to post traumatic stress syndrome in children (Kerr & Nelson, 1998:268). This includes nightmares, irritability and other forms of behavior problems like aggression. Stravou (1993:3) is of the opinion that witnessing a violent act, affect children in general more severely than adults. It can also be argued that violence and political instability will affect children's development adversely. In South Africa where 70% of the population is under the age of 18 years, the implications are devastating (Byne, 1993:3), especially in the townships. Katlehong, a township in the Eastern part of Gauteng, experienced tremendous violence during the years 1985-1995, because of the faction fights between two political parties, the African National Congress and the Inkatha Freedom party. Many people were killed, tortured, abducted and subjected to various forms of severe ill treatment. Reports like these are all too common in South African Black Townships, mixed in with miscellaneous reports of general community and domestic violence. Although among the people of Katlehong violence seems to be largely a thing of the past, its trauma remains and the children still bear the marks. Young people have become socialized to violence as a way of solving conflict. This attitude was indicated in a personal interview, which I conducted with teachers at the Kabelo Primary School prior to my study. In the interview one teacher had indicated that, "Most of our children are experiencing behaviour problems like aggression, and others experience difficulties in paying attention and concentrating in the classroom". This type of behaviour is regarded as the after effect of violence. As a result of the increase in violence, it has become clear that there is a vast need for psychological counseling for South African children who live in places like Katlehong, which have been constantly involved in acts of violence. Dawes (1994:6) supported the need for this service when he pointed out that "the need for psychological healing is overwhelming but, most unfortunately, for these children there are not enough psychological services to help alleviate these problems". It is not only the non-availability of these services that prevents children from accessing psychological interventions, but also a lack of knowledge about psychological difficulties and counseling among parents. Owing to this lack of knowledge, also with regard to possible interventions, society in the past tended to take a punitive rather than a rehabilitative, attitude towards an antisocial, aggressive youth (Carson & Butcher, 1992:545). In the townships, a punitive attitude was often to apply physical punishment in the form of corporal punishment; this, however, is seen as humiliating and antagonizing for children (Davis, 1996:291). In addition, corporal punishment has also shown to intensify rather than to correct aggressive behaviour, as reported by Omani (1982 cited by Mwamwenda, 1992:318) who argues that beating young children should be seen as an act of aggression that does not teach children conflict resolution. A study that supports this statement was carried out by Potegal and Knutson (1994:183), who reported in their finding that children who were struck after a simple tantrum had significantly higher frequencies of tantruming. Therefore, corporal punishment is regarded as an authoritarian and conservative way of disciplining children, that does not improve their abilities to deal with conflict nor deepen their understanding to their own emotional and social functioning. These results indicate that some variables that had been used in the past to deal with aggressive children can cause children to manifest antisocial behaviour like aggression (Farrington, 1992:260). From the researcher's experience, township parents often discipline their children by scolding them and they do not often encourage them, especially boys, to express their feelings freely. Scolding is regarded by Davis (1996:289) as verbal aggression, and is defined by Vissing, Straus, Eilees and Harrop (1991:224) as a communication intended to cause psychological pain. Its effects are low self-esteem, anger, anxiety, depression, academic underachievement and lying (Davis, 1996:289). Suppression of feelings among African children is indicated by Mandela's statement in his book "Long Walk to Freedom". When he recalled various aspects of his circumcision, he said that "flinching or crying out was a sign of weakness and stigmatized one's manhood; man must suffer in silence" (Mandela, 1995:12). According to Oaklander (1992:207) if a child is unable to express his feelings, he bottles them up, and becomes angry. In order for him to express his anger and his thwarted self, Oaklander (1990:208) adds that the child pushes on to "become something beyond his awareness, he can retroflect the anger by having headaches and stomach aches, or deflect the true feelings by hitting, kicking and striking out". Such a child is mostly regarded as aggressive, and according to Bierman (1989:36) children like this, who acquired non-compliant and violent behaviour patterns at home are at high risk for reacting aggressively towards their teachers and peers as an outward expression of emotional turmoil. Stravou (1993:11) is of the opinion that children learn to believe that aggressive attitudes and violent behaviour are normal and acceptable, in an environment where violence is viewed as an acceptable way to get and to maintain power and solve problems.

M.A. / Please refer to full text to view abstract

M.A. (African Languages) / Please refer to full text to view abstract

Please read the abstract (summary) in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MA (Alternative and Augmentative Communication))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Centre for Augmentative and Alternative Communication / MA / unrestricted

Please read the abstract in the 00front part of this document. See also General Summary and Opsomming after chapter 7 (pp162-165) / Dissertation (DPhil (Communication Pathology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology / Unrestricted

Please read the abstract (Summary) in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MA (Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2000. / Psychology / MA / unrestricted