Nicotine titration was studied in cigarette smokers not interested in cutting down or quitting smoking. Forty smokers were classified as high nicotine dependent (n=20) and low nicotine dependent (n=20) using a validated tolerance questionnaire. Subjects were randomized into baseline (n=10) or nicotine fade conditions (n=10) within their dependency group. Subjects in the baseline conditions smoked their preferred brand of cigarette throughout the experiment. Smokers in the fade conditions switched to a reduced nicotine brand in the latter half of the procedure. Multiple in vivo and in vitro measures of smoking rate and topography were collected over a four day period. Based on analyses of these data, it was concluded that no compensatory changes in smoking behavior occurred that were clearly attributable to nicotine titration. It was found that smokers classified as high nicotine dependent smoked more intensively that low dependent smokers. The implications of these findings given the design and experimental controls employed in this experiment are discussed, and directions for future research explored. / M.S.

Smokers require high motivation to quit smoking and to remain smoke-free. Worksites might enhance motivation to be smoke-free by offering incentives to employees who quit smoking. A pilot study was conducted where one worksite offered a smoking cessation group plus several incentive programs. The incentives included money and public recognition based on individual performance, and dinners based on group performance. After 12 months, 48% of participants remained smoke-free. This result is significantly different [x2(1)= 3.910, p<.05]. from the results of a smoking cessation group conducted a comparable company (here, 18% of participants remained smoke-free). Another study was designed where one worksite would offer a smoking cessation group, and another worksite would offer an incentive program plus a smoking cessation group. Treatment conditions were randomly assigned. Both worksites were part of the same parent company (General Electric), thus minimizing differences between the companies. Many dimensions of the worksites and of participants at each worksite were assessed to demonstrate comparability between the worksites. In the incentive condition monetary incentives were offered. Participants received $10 for not smoking for two weeks, four weeks. five weeks. six weeks, eight weeks and ten weeks. They received $20 for not smoking after three, four, five and six months. They received $25 for not smoking after nine months and 12 months. Their exhaled air was assessed on a carbon monoxide detector before receiving monetary rewards. As a result, 54% of the 28 participants were smoke-free after nine months. In the non-incentive condition, participants were offered the same smoking cessation program but without major incentives. Participants were assessed on the carbon monoxide machine for five of the six consecutive months after the program ended. They were also assessed at the nine-month mark. Here, 44% of the 16 participants were smoke-free after nine months. Both interventions, then, were very successful. As a result none of the hypotheses of this study were supported. This study did not employ a strong research design, and unforeseen changes in procedures weakened the study's validity. Despite these shortcomings, these interventions have merit. The intervention enabled a high percentage of people to quit smoking. These results might encourage smokers who want to quit. Given the success of these programs, hopefully a well-controlled study will be conducted to ascertain the effects of incentives and rewards upon worksite smoking interventions. / Ph. D.

An experiment was done to investigate whether or not there is a need to treat smokers and non-smokers as separate target audiences when creating tobacco counter-advertisements. The Extended Parallel Process Model (Witte, 1992) and Reactance Theory (Brehm, 1966) were used to guide the development of predictions. The study revealed that social marketers need to have different advertising tactics for smokers and non-smokers, since smokers have reported more maladaptive coping responses and fewer adaptive coping responses than non-smokers. Moreover, based on the fact that a smoker’s brand forms an essential part of their self-identity (Goldberg et al., 1995) the experiment was also designed to see if smokers would have differing levels of reactance and other maladaptive coping responses if they saw a counter-advertisement attacking their brand, one attacking a competing brand, and a non-branded one. The study did not reveal any significant differences in reactions among the three conditions. / x, 125 leaves : ill. ; 29 cm

The aim of this study was to investigate the vitamin B-6 status of Saudi adult males and compare the status between rural and urban subjects. Fifty-one adult male subjects were recruited from urban (n=31) and rural (n=20) populations of Riyadh. These subjects were reclassified to cigarette smokers (n=19), water pipe smokers (n=5) and non-smokers (n=27). The study also investigated the intake of macronutrients and selected micronutrients. In addition, the study investigated other health indicators including Body Mass Index (BMI), hematocrit, hemoglobin, plasma alkaline phosphatase activity and albumin concentration, urinary creatinine and urea nitrogen excretion. The mean of vitamin B-6 intake, B-6 to protein ratio, plasma pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) concentration and urinary 4-PA excretion in urban group were 2.18 ± 0.62 mg/day, 0.022 ± 0.008 mg/g, 39.3 ± 18.0 nmol/L and 4.6 ± 2.3 μmol/day, respectively. In rural group, these measures were 2.15 ± 0.65 mg/day, 0.021 ± 0.004 mg/g, 40.5 ± 14.6 nmol/L and 4.4 ± 2.3 (μmol/day, respectively. These measures indicated adequate status with no significant difference between the two groups. The mean intake of calcium, folate, vitamin D, zinc and dietary fiber was lower than recommendation of the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) in both groups. Health indicators were within normal range except for BMI, which indicated a prevalence of overweight and obesity in both urban (27.1 ± 5.5 Kg/m²) and rural (28.2 ± 6.0 Kg/m²) subjects. Comparison of the three smoking groups showed that the water pipe smokers compared to cigarette smokers and non-smokers groups had significantly higher mean intake of vitamin B-6 (2.51 ± 0.73 mg/day), which resulted in higher concentrations of plasma PLP, pyridoxal (PL), red blood cells PLP and urinary 4-PA (54.9 ± 23.1 nmol/L, 21.5 ± 10.0 nmol/L, 33.7 ± 8.5 nmol/L and 6.9 ± 4.7 μmol/day, respectively). Cigarette smokers had significantly lower concentration of plasma PLP (30.9 ± 12.5 nmol/L) compared to non-smokers (40.0 ± 12.9 nmol/L) without a significant difference in vitamin B-6 intake. Hematocrit and hemoglobin were significantly higher in smokers (50 ± 3% and 167 ± 11 g/L, respectively) compared to non-smokers (48 ± 3% and 160 ± 9 g/L, respectively). The results of this study suggest that vitamin B-6 status of adult males in Riyadh is adequate with no urban vs. rural variation. / Graduation date: 2004