This thesis investigates the criminogenic capacity of characteristic residential housing designs found in the British city. This exploratory study collected and analysed both qualitative and quantitative data concerning the perceptions of major stakeholders in society (planning professionals, police officers, convicted burglars and young adults) regarding these design typologies. This design-specific approach highlights the crucial significance of 'image' and subjective perceptions in the 'design-affects-crime' debate thereby representing an innovative and original contribution. Newman's theory of 'Defensible Space' (1973) is convincingly supported, in that single family dwelling units such as detached, semi-detached and terraced housing, were perceived by all groups to be less prone to criminality. Low-rise and high-rise flats, however, were viewed in more negative terms, as highly criminogenic and fearinducing. To probe the complex relationship between the social and physical dimensions of urban residential space, various designs of contrasting and polarised levels of upkeep were selected for investigation. Significantly, designs with visible 'signs of decay' that were poorly-maintained were consistently perceived to be both more criminogenic and fear inducing. Newman's third 'defensible space' element of 'image and milieu' is underpinned, in addition to the 'Broken Windows' theory of Wilson and Kelling (1982). It is established that design, per se, is not the definitive explanatory factor for criminality. Rather, it is the crucial socio-economic and demographic associations attached to these designs that influences perceptions of crime/deviancy, 'defensible space' and the fear of crime. The 'image' of the design can significantly affect levels of perceived defensibility. It is demonstrated that probing the subjective and perceptual elements to crime and fear of crime provides a useful analysis to pursue alongside the traditional approaches of utilising recorded crime statistics and published socio-economic and demographic data to guide policy responses and crime prevention through environmental design initiatives. Understanding the subjective reality of the fear of crime and how 'defensible space' is perceived can assist in the campaign to improve urban design and inform the Home Office's 'Secured By Design' initiative. This work underpins the journey towards understanding 'safer cities' and contributes to the design-affects-crime debate generally.

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Metropolitan fringe communities throughout North America are today facing a multitude of major problems precipitated by their recent rapid development. The leapfrog chaos of urban sprawl has left thousands of acres of disrupted land in its wake, and basic municipal policy considerations are essential to solve these problems and prevent new ones. Much of the responsibility for this chaos lies with Municipal Councils that, instead of recognizing the delicate interrelationship of municipal development goals, policies, patterns, and costs, are concerned only with attracting new development. On the other hand, there are few factual cost data available in a form readily applicable to practical problems, and there have been few attempts to secure such data. Hence, the objective is to investigate the servicing cost consequences of different development patterns and to thereby establish policies fostering an efficient residential development pattern. Using the household as the cost unit, six pattern-cost hypotheses are formulated, incorporating six pattern variables, namely: lot area; lot width to depth ratio; distance to available trunk services; area of a subdivision at a distance from trunk services; the proportion of lots developed; and servicing level. Seven to-the-lot services, namely roads, curbs, sidewalks, street lights, water distribution, sanitary sewers, and storm sewers, are considered with each pattern variable. Utilizing an abstract model, twelve 160-acre model subdivisions incorporating the six pattern variables are designed, serviced, and costed for each of the seven services to establish pattern-cost relationships. To assure consistency, specific subdivision design requirements, servicing requirements, and costing procedures are followed. The study results clearly uphold the following six pattern-cost hypotheses: Hypothesis A: That per household costs for the specified municipal services will decrease as lot area is decreased. Hypothesis B: That per household costs for the specified municipal services will decrease as the lot width to depth ratio is decreased. Hypothesis C: That per household costs for the affected trunk and related municipal services and for total per household servicing costs will decrease as the distance between the subdivision and the available trunk services is decreased. Hypothesis D: That per household costs for the affected trunk and related municipal services and for total per household servicing costs will decrease as the area of the subdivision is increased when the subdivision is at a distance from available trunk services. Hypothesis E: That per household costs for the specified municipal services will decrease as the proportion of lots developed is increased. Hypothesis F: That per household costs for the specified municipal services will decrease as the servicing level is decreased. From these basic statements it is apparent that if the need for servicing urban and suburban development is accepted, and if the economical provision of these services is desired, then a "concentration" approach to community building must be accepted. From the results, basic municipal policies for residential development can be formulated. Development should be staged to take in new areas only as they are needed and only as they can be serviced. Areas already started should be completed first. Development at a distance from established areas should be considered only if it is complete and extensive. In outlying areas for deferred development, services and subdivision activity should be minimized. Urban development involving lots of over 7,000 square feet should be discouraged, while the small narrow lot should be reconsidered because it is most economical. In conclusion, the economies of concentration are clearly demonstrated by the study results. The decision makers, if they are protecting the community interest, must avoid the waste of a "scatteration" policy. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Within the central business districts of many North American cities are to be found blighted commercial areas which have deteriorated through the process of time, market changes, and locational obsolescence. Old buildings, some beautiful, are left to deteriorate or are torn down and replaced by characterless new facades in an attempt to compete with the integrated 'shopping center' approach. Such changes do not make a city. In recent years a number of cities have utilized rehabilitation techniques in an attempt to revitalize blighted commercial areas. Rehabilitation may be broadly defined as remodeling, altering, repairing and otherwise improving substandard, deteriorated, or obsolete areas, or individual structures within these areas so that a decent, safe, and sanitary environment may be achieved. In the case of commercial rehabilitation there is often more emphasis put on the aesthetic aspects of improvement than in residential rehabilitation. Commercial enterprises, for the purpose of this discussion, may refer to places of entertainment, restaurants, or offices, but refer particularly to retail outlets. It is the basic aim of the thesis to examine the subject of commercial rehabilitation in detail in order to determine its progress and its problems, particularly under present legislative provisions. Policies are then proposed to enable successful future use of rehabilitation in Canadian cities. On the assumption that revitalization of blighted commercial areas of the central business districts of Canadian and American cities is a desirable objective, as a basis for investigation it is hypothesized that in order to achieve a comprehensive program of central business district renewal utilizing rehabilitation measures, it is essential that there be coordinated participation of Federal and local governments at the advisory, administrative, and financial levels in conjunction with the efforts of private enterprise. Study is carried out in three major ways. First, an extensive literature review is used to determine the main physical, social, economic, and legislative aspects of commercial rehabilitation. Second, response from questionnaires sent to Canadian and American cities having central business district rehabilitation projects within a government-sponsored "urban renewal scheme" are tabulated to show the meaning attached to commercial rehabilitation by the involved authorities; the extent of rehabilitation projects in execution or planned; the source of inspiration for these projects; and problems encountered. The hypothesis is examined specifically through the use of a case-study of the City of Victoria, British Columbia. Through a rather special combination of civic and local business concern coupled with an important tourist industry and a heritage of historic buildings, Victoria has been the subject of considerable rehabilitation effort. The most significant limitation of the case-study is that Victoria's central business district does not exhibit the extreme and far-reaching conditions of blight which are found in many cities. Throughout the thesis emphasis is placed on the role of local and federal governments in relation to that of private enterprise. From information collected in the manner previously described policies for utilization by Canadian cities are proposed. Briefly they recommend that commercial rehabilitation be mainly a local rather than federal government responsibility; that the local government operate mainly in an advisory and administrative rather than financial capacity; that private enterprise efforts be encouraged wherever possible; and that rehabilitation be carried out on a comprehensive scale. It is felt that the financial role played by local and federal governments should be most active in the provision of services and public works. Where rehabilitation proves impossible through private investment sources and yet is considered to be of genuine benefit to the community, recourse may be made to Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation for "urban renewal schemes” or to the Industrial Development Bank of Canada for other areas. Subject to the limitation placed on the financial role of government in commercial rehabilitation, the hypothesis is considered valid. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Improved techniques for forecasting land needs for urban development are required with continuing population and economic growth for the provision of adequate services at reasonable cost. Current local forecasting techniques exclude the direct measurement of land used in industrial activities and its correlation with industrial production. With continuing technological improvements in industrial processes it is likely that the relation between land and output will vary and particularly in the manufacturing industries. A review of the Petroleum Refining Industry's experience by a direct mailed questionnaire to all Lower Mainland of B.C. refiners indicated a declining importance of land in relation to output over the last two decades. Trends in refinery output, employment, and land in active use, show an increasing productivity of both land and labor. The increase in productivity of manufacturing land exceeded that of labor over the past twenty years in this industry group. A conceptual comparison was made between two types of forecast where, in one, the factor of increasing output per unit of land was excluded. The comparison was inexact since somewhat different industries were compared. However, it appeared that over a twenty-year period the exclusion of the productivity of land factor in the example could lead to significantly different results. The difference between the techniques was an indicated requirement of 1200 acres versus 600 acres in total land needed up to 1980 by the industry group. Before the factor of land productivity in manufacturing and other industries can be adequately considered changes are required in the methods of collecting statistics. These changes would enable a correlation between output, employment, population, and land within the urban area. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In recent years, many hitherto rural communities have come under the influence of metropolitan urban expansion. The most detrimentally affected part of the rural community has been the commercial district. Many of these older, rural-established, metropolitan-ecompassed, commercial districts, due to their inability to adequately adapt themselves to serve the changing demands being made of them — with many of these same demands being supplied by new competition in the form of planned shopping centres and the now more easily accessible metropolitan central business districts — in some cases have become, or are likely to become, commercial "slums". In many instances it is desirable to retain these strategically located commercial districts in a stable and functional condition, for they not only provide a source of tax revenue, personal wage income, and investment income, but also provide the only convenient customer service for a great variety of necessities. To date virtually no attention has been directed toward the improvement of these formerly rural commercial districts in order that they may adequately perform necessary functions. Unless some definite steps are taken to achieve stability, these districts will become blighted scars on the metropolitan landscape and will eventually envelop in decay an increasingly larger area. This study proposes one method to achieve this stability and rejuvenation. APPROACH - In the last decade some attention has been directed toward the stabilization of older outlying commercial districts within cities. Even more recently attention has been directed toward the improvement of older commercial areas within, or near, central business districts, and, at times, the whole central business district. In general a dual approach has been used to achieve the desired stability and revitalization. First the inherent assets of that particular commercial district are capitalized on; second, the principles and experience of the planned modern shopping centre are utilized. This latter approach has been justified on the grounds that planned shopping centres have been economically very successful, and that the success of the planned shopping centres has been one of the causes for the actual, or relative, decline of these commercial districts. HYPOTHESIS It has been hypothesized in this study that, since the problems confronting the older rural-established metropolitan encompassed declining commercial districts are basically similar in manifestation, cause and effect to the problems facing the older urban-established outlying commercial districts within cities, the solutions proposed for outlying commercial districts are applicable to rural established commercial districts. In order to demonstrate this hypothesis, the declining, or imminently declining, commercial district of Ladner, a small hitherto-rural metropolitan-encompassed community, was analyzed and replanned according to the proposed revitalization principles. FINDINGS Commercial district revitalization is achieved through a comprehensive, dynamic, and properly staged programme composed of three major elements; the organization, the research, and the plan. The organization is responsible for the initiation and administration of the programme, and for the creation and implementation of the plan. The research deals with the functional, planning, and architectural analysis of the district. The physical plan strives for economic stability, pleasantness, convenience, safety, and individuality. The plan achieves these characteristics through the use of the following principles: a conveniently accessible, definite, compact commercial nucleus composed of mutually compatible and mutually beneficial activity-nuclei, which are isolated and insulated from the non-compatible nuclei; a ring road with an internal collar of off-street parking accommodation related to the activity nuclei; pedestrian-vehicular movement separation where it is desirable for economic, aesthetic, or safety reasons, through the creation of plazas, malls, and arcades; strong physical, functional, and visual unity; and a pleasant, varied, colourful, and exciting district, with some attractive unique quality. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The helicopter represents a revolutionary approach to flight. Its most important characteristic is its flexibilily; it climbs and descends vertically, it hovers in mid-air, and it travels at relatively slow and fast speeds. Therefore, it presents a vehicle which has great potential in operating within or directly above the physically dense central business district, carrying passenger and freight traffic. Helicopter transportation is now taking root in several large metropolitan cities, and more cities are considering the installation of such a service. It appears that the helicopter will become a strong member of the urban transportation system in the near future, and therefore steps should be taken in advance of its advent to insure a proper location of the heliport, as well as an efficient route pattern within the metropolitan city. It is felt that the helicopter will be most restricted in its operation within the central business district, and at the same time will carry its greatest payload in and out of the central business district. Therefore, the location of one or a pattern of heliports within the central business district, becomes a fundamental issue to helicopter transportation. Several studies have been undertaken which considered the heliport location in light of the technical requirements of the helicopter, and to some degree the potential traffic which the helicopter might bear. The heliport location criteria which evolved reflected this more general approach, particularly to traffic generating areas. The studies did not consider individual land uses which might directly or indirectly cause the failure of a heliport because the particular characteristics of the land uses could not support helicopter transportation. Using former studies, therefore, as a basis for further research, this study has attempted to analyze traffic generating areas as they affect helicopter transportation. In this respect, the land uses of the central business district and the traffic that such land uses create have become the focal point of the study. The study draws certain conclusions with respect to heliport locations in the central business district. First; it recognizes the overlapping effects of specific land uses and the technical limitations of the helicopter on the choice of location. Although it is felt the land use factors are essentially determining over a period of time, the technical limitations create problems which must be dealt with, with equal urgency, and in some cases might initially control location. However, in all cases, the land use factors should receive precedence in the establishment of location criteria. It is the land use criteria that will determine the long-range success of the helicopter service. Secondly; the heliport should be located in the "auto-oriented" areas of the central business district, but should be closely associated with the "walking" area of the specific types of central business district workers who may be expected to be the major users of helicopter transportation. Thirdly; the technical characteristics of the helicopter require that the heliport have an area of approximately four acres. In addition, it should have a bi-directional approach route with an obstruction profile ratio minimum of 1:8, with allowance for emergency landings outward to the critical point in the take-off pattern. The problem of noise associated with the helicopter in flight have been mentioned only in passing, this involves a detailed study of the mechanical parts of the helicopter which the author could not discuss with authority. However, the noise will have its affect on adjacent land uses to a considerable degree. The onus is on the helicopter manufacturer to attempt to reduce the noise to a compatible level. The location of a heliport on a water-front site seems particularly advantageous with respect to the lower cost of land and an obstruction-free landing and departure route. However, if the water-front location cannot satisfy the land use criteria which have been developed, and which generate the traffic potential, then such a location would prove to be inadequate. Furthermore, harbour regulations pertaining to shipping in the area may result in the negation of the values of a particular water-front location from the standpoint of the land use criteria. The study was limited in obtaining sufficient data on land use in relation to the movement of central business district workers. Such research is now underway but only to a limited degree. It is felt that the contribution of this study lies in its attempt to point out the influence of land uses on the generation of traffic, and the helicopter service developing on the basis of what traffic the specific land uses are generating. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

It is the purpose of this Thesis to demonstrate: that a single enterprise community of settlements should plan its activities to prevent ghost towns from developing and to lessen the ill-effects of economic fluctuations; that a regional planning approach to this problem is the best since it produces balanced solutions from consideration of physical, social, and economic aspects; that the problems of single enterprise communities can be solved if a group or an individual who has recognized the problem can give the leadership needed to stir governments, companies, and the people sufficiently so that a regional planning administration will be established as the first step to solving the problem; and, finally, that the survey, analysis, and solutions, will be a contribution to knowledge. A survey of various communities was undertaken to demonstrate the problem. These were settlements as they existed in the past and as they exist today. The single enterprise community of settlements of the Rossland-Trail Region is used as a case study in order to show that such a community is vulnerable to the general problem but can be aided. A survey of its particular problems is undertaken and various solutions to them are offered. From the problems and solutions certain general principles are derived: The Principle of a Regional Planning Approach; The Principle of the Physical Habitat; A Principle for Regional Delimitation; The Principle of Economic Dominance; The Principle of a Regional Land-Use Balance; The Principle of Economic Expansion and Diversification; The Principle of Resource Development; The Principle of Citizen Participation; The Principle of Limited Jurisdiction; and The Principle of a Regional Planning Administration. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate