Our world is experiencing a crisis of unsustainability with ecological, socioeconomic, and existential dimensions. Thus, planning for the transition to sustainability is a challenge requiring transformation of the dorrunant cultural paradigm. I address this problem of planning between cultural paradigms by examining the discourse between First Nations Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Western Science, and identify lessons that contribute to a sounder epistemological basis for planning theory and practice. To link planning theory, sustainability and TEK, I combined literature reviews, interviews and lessons from my experience with First Nations. I derived a cross-cultural analytical framework based on epistemology, cosmology and ontology (ECO), and applied it to planning theory, case studies of the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound and my own professional work. Planning for sustainability must address multiple dimensions. My approach includes biophysical, social and cultural capital, postulating that greater social and cultural capital could decrease consumption of biophysical capital. In this framework "ECO" addresses cultural capital. My analysis of TEK reveals more than just "knowledge," rather a way of life which generates knowledge. I coined the term TEK-Systems (TEKS) to refer to the social and cultural capital, and methodological features of these lotowledge-generating systems. Applying ECO reveals philosophical elements of TEK, that are neglected in the literature. TEKS combine empirical knowledge with other ways of knowing offering alternative models of reality to the cultural mainstream. The Scientific Panel recognized all significant features of TEKS and ECO in my framework, and employed Nuu-Chah-Nulth TEK protocol in their planning model. Various forms of knowledge from wholly different philosophical origins informed complex planning and decision- making process with consensus outcomes. Similarly, the most significant lessons from my professional application was that respect, cultural framing, and community involvement are key professional tools. Planning between cultural paradigms requires recognizing different knowledge systems; including different ways of knowing strengthens planning for sustainability. This approach establishes new terrain for planning theory. It requires inclusive planning and decision- making processes which foster caring, respect and commitment. Enhancing social and cultural capital provides community and spiritual resources for sustainability. Planners need specialized framing to work in these areas.

The concepts of ecotourism and sustainable tourism at the local level refer to the processes within which tourism can foster and contribute to sustainable development at tourist destinations. This thesis argues that in order for destinations to move towards sustainability, tourism must be properly planned and managed towards this goal. Assuming that tourism is a community-industry, planning for tourism must incorporate the perspectives of all tourism stakeholders, including community residents who share their space with tourists and are also part of the tourism product. Using a mixed-methodology that combined 11 unstructured interviews with a 117-respondent survey, this study reports the main constraints for the development of a sustainable tourist destination. It also brings to light the perspectives of the local community on tourism development. I conclude that for the destination to move towards sustainability, barriers must be acknowledged and overcome. Some suggestions are made in this regard.

In the context of a deepening environmental crisis, there are growing calls for a planning framework informed by environmental ethics. In response, I locate this research in the ecocentric discourse and argue the need to challenge both ecological destruction and patriarchy. I raise feminist concerns about the marginalization of women from the processes by which we come to understand and respond to environmental concerns, and adopt a feminist methodology, qualitative methods, and a case study strategy to explore the subjective dimension of women's environmental activism in the context of growing concerns about the forests of Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. The purpose of this research is to identify: (a) the critical insights that these women bring to their activism; (b) the patriarchal barriers they face in the course of their activism; and (c) the implications of the research findings for an action-oriented ecofeminism and ethics-based planning for sustainability. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 women and their feedback (transcripts, workshop, draft research findings) incorporated into the final report. The research findings confirm that these women have critical insights to offer and that patriarchal barriers frustrate but do not totally constrain their activism. These women offer insight into the complex set of values and structures that protect the status quo, and the forest industry in particular, expose patriarchal structures and values that constrain their activism and protect the interests of a male-dominated industry, and suggest a normative foundation for sustainability that takes seriously the well-being of human and nonhuman nature, male and female. In analysing these findings, I argue for an action-based ecofeminism that moves beyond ideal notions of the ecological self, promotes a public ethic of care, challenges both constructs and structures, and critically supports the emergence of women's insights and contributions from the economic, political, and cultural margins. Furthermore, I argue that these women's insights and experiences have significant substantive and procedural implications for planning. I propose an ethics-based planning framework committed to the ecological and social integrity of 'place' and to the well-being of all who live there—human and nonhuman, male and female. In challenging the status quo, this ethics-based planning involves struggles with both external structures and internally held values. In doing so, it links the political to the personal and contributes to both structural and personal transformation.

The concepts of ecotourism and sustainable tourism at the local level refer to the processes within which tourism can foster and contribute to sustainable development at tourist destinations. This thesis argues that in order for destinations to move towards sustainability, tourism must be properly planned and managed towards this goal. Assuming that tourism is a community-industry, planning for tourism must incorporate the perspectives of all tourism stakeholders, including community residents who share their space with tourists and are also part of the tourism product. Using a mixed-methodology that combined 11 unstructured interviews with a 117-respondent survey, this study reports the main constraints for the development of a sustainable tourist destination. It also brings to light the perspectives of the local community on tourism development. I conclude that for the destination to move towards sustainability, barriers must be acknowledged and overcome. Some suggestions are made in this regard. / Science, Faculty of / Resources, Environment and Sustainability (IRES), Institute for / Graduate

In the context of a deepening environmental crisis, there are growing calls for a planning framework informed by environmental ethics. In response, I locate this research in the ecocentric discourse and argue the need to challenge both ecological destruction and patriarchy. I raise feminist concerns about the marginalization of women from the processes by which we come to understand and respond to environmental concerns, and adopt a feminist methodology, qualitative methods, and a case study strategy to explore the subjective dimension of women's environmental activism in the context of growing concerns about the forests of Clayoquot Sound, British Columbia. The purpose of this research is to identify: (a) the critical insights that these women bring to their activism; (b) the patriarchal barriers they face in the course of their activism; and (c) the implications of the research findings for an action-oriented ecofeminism and ethics-based planning for sustainability. In-depth interviews were conducted with 20 women and their feedback (transcripts, workshop, draft research findings) incorporated into the final report. The research findings confirm that these women have critical insights to offer and that patriarchal barriers frustrate but do not totally constrain their activism. These women offer insight into the complex set of values and structures that protect the status quo, and the forest industry in particular, expose patriarchal structures and values that constrain their activism and protect the interests of a male-dominated industry, and suggest a normative foundation for sustainability that takes seriously the well-being of human and nonhuman nature, male and female. In analysing these findings, I argue for an action-based ecofeminism that moves beyond ideal notions of the ecological self, promotes a public ethic of care, challenges both constructs and structures, and critically supports the emergence of women's insights and contributions from the economic, political, and cultural margins. Furthermore, I argue that these women's insights and experiences have significant substantive and procedural implications for planning. I propose an ethics-based planning framework committed to the ecological and social integrity of 'place' and to the well-being of all who live there—human and nonhuman, male and female. In challenging the status quo, this ethics-based planning involves struggles with both external structures and internally held values. In doing so, it links the political to the personal and contributes to both structural and personal transformation. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Our world is experiencing a crisis of unsustainability with ecological, socioeconomic, and existential dimensions. Thus, planning for the transition to sustainability is a challenge requiring transformation of the dorrunant cultural paradigm. I address this problem of planning between cultural paradigms by examining the discourse between First Nations Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Western Science, and identify lessons that contribute to a sounder epistemological basis for planning theory and practice. To link planning theory, sustainability and TEK, I combined literature reviews, interviews and lessons from my experience with First Nations. I derived a cross-cultural analytical framework based on epistemology, cosmology and ontology (ECO), and applied it to planning theory, case studies of the Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound and my own professional work. Planning for sustainability must address multiple dimensions. My approach includes biophysical, social and cultural capital, postulating that greater social and cultural capital could decrease consumption of biophysical capital. In this framework "ECO" addresses cultural capital. My analysis of TEK reveals more than just "knowledge," rather a way of life which generates knowledge. I coined the term TEK-Systems (TEKS) to refer to the social and cultural capital, and methodological features of these lotowledge-generating systems. Applying ECO reveals philosophical elements of TEK, that are neglected in the literature. TEKS combine empirical knowledge with other ways of knowing offering alternative models of reality to the cultural mainstream. The Scientific Panel recognized all significant features of TEKS and ECO in my framework, and employed Nuu-Chah-Nulth TEK protocol in their planning model. Various forms of knowledge from wholly different philosophical origins informed complex planning and decision- making process with consensus outcomes. Similarly, the most significant lessons from my professional application was that respect, cultural framing, and community involvement are key professional tools. Planning between cultural paradigms requires recognizing different knowledge systems; including different ways of knowing strengthens planning for sustainability. This approach establishes new terrain for planning theory. It requires inclusive planning and decision- making processes which foster caring, respect and commitment. Enhancing social and cultural capital provides community and spiritual resources for sustainability. Planners need specialized framing to work in these areas. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Headwater streams typically have no fish, owing to steep gradients and impassible barriers; therefore, scientific research and protection measures have been focused on fish bearing streams. The Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound (CSP) developed a channel classification system which is pertinent to all streams, fishless and fish bearing alike, and upon which management prescriptions in Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia are based (CSP, 1995). The CSP classification delineates channels according to four physical criteria: bed material, gradient, entrenchment, and width. The current study was undertaken to determine the efficacy with which the CSP classification system delineates small, steep streams, on the basis of channel geomorphic units within them, and to examine the benthic macroinvertebrate habitat capability of these geomorphic units. Falls, bedrock cascades, boulder cascades, rapids, chutes, riffles, glides, and pools were described according to their bed slope and dominant channel-material type and organization. In addition, the area of each geomorphic unit was measured. Seventeen streams were grouped into four CSP channel classes which were compared with respect to the mean relative proportion of class area in geomorphic units. Stratified random benthic samples were extracted from geomorphic units in order to investigate and to compare their habitat capability. "Alluvial channels" in the study exhibited only weak, very infrequent fluvial transport; therefore, they were termed semi-alluvial. In general, high gradient geomorphic units (i.e. bedrock and boulder cascades) were dominant in steep, largely non-alluvial channels. Lower gradient units (i.e. riffles and rapids) were common in semi-alluvial streams with more mild slopes. Accordingly, channel classes with opposing bed material and gradient designations exhibited notable differences with respect to relative proportions of geomorphic units while width and entrenchment designations exerted little influence on channel organization. Ultimately, only two of the four CSP classification criteria effectively systematized channels on the basis of channel geomorphic units within them. Abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates was greatest in riffles (≈100 individuals per two minute kick sample), followed by rapids (≈80 individuals/sample), pools (≈70 individuals/sample), boulder cascades (≈60 individuals/sample), chutes (≈50 individuals/sample), and lowest in bedrock cascades (≈25 individuals/sample). In addition, abundance of invertebrates in channels with ephemeral flow regimes was considerably lower compared to channels with seasonal or perennial flow regimes. Ordination of macroinvertebrate taxa showed that community structure of bedrock cascades and chutes were similar but different from other habitats. Similarly, the benthic macroinvertebrate community structure of channels with ephemeral flow regimes was very distinct.

Headwater streams typically have no fish, owing to steep gradients and impassible barriers; therefore, scientific research and protection measures have been focused on fish bearing streams. The Scientific Panel for Sustainable Forest Practices in Clayoquot Sound (CSP) developed a channel classification system which is pertinent to all streams, fishless and fish bearing alike, and upon which management prescriptions in Clayoquot Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia are based (CSP, 1995). The CSP classification delineates channels according to four physical criteria: bed material, gradient, entrenchment, and width. The current study was undertaken to determine the efficacy with which the CSP classification system delineates small, steep streams, on the basis of channel geomorphic units within them, and to examine the benthic macroinvertebrate habitat capability of these geomorphic units. Falls, bedrock cascades, boulder cascades, rapids, chutes, riffles, glides, and pools were described according to their bed slope and dominant channel-material type and organization. In addition, the area of each geomorphic unit was measured. Seventeen streams were grouped into four CSP channel classes which were compared with respect to the mean relative proportion of class area in geomorphic units. Stratified random benthic samples were extracted from geomorphic units in order to investigate and to compare their habitat capability. "Alluvial channels" in the study exhibited only weak, very infrequent fluvial transport; therefore, they were termed semi-alluvial. In general, high gradient geomorphic units (i.e. bedrock and boulder cascades) were dominant in steep, largely non-alluvial channels. Lower gradient units (i.e. riffles and rapids) were common in semi-alluvial streams with more mild slopes. Accordingly, channel classes with opposing bed material and gradient designations exhibited notable differences with respect to relative proportions of geomorphic units while width and entrenchment designations exerted little influence on channel organization. Ultimately, only two of the four CSP classification criteria effectively systematized channels on the basis of channel geomorphic units within them. Abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates was greatest in riffles (≈100 individuals per two minute kick sample), followed by rapids (≈80 individuals/sample), pools (≈70 individuals/sample), boulder cascades (≈60 individuals/sample), chutes (≈50 individuals/sample), and lowest in bedrock cascades (≈25 individuals/sample). In addition, abundance of invertebrates in channels with ephemeral flow regimes was considerably lower compared to channels with seasonal or perennial flow regimes. Ordination of macroinvertebrate taxa showed that community structure of bedrock cascades and chutes were similar but different from other habitats. Similarly, the benthic macroinvertebrate community structure of channels with ephemeral flow regimes was very distinct. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

This thesis examines how stakeholder values should be clarified in consensus-based processes in order to provide the framework for the generation of options, the collection of technical information and the assessment of options. The specific context is forest land use planning in British Columbia, particularly with respect to creating protected areas. A case study approach was used. The case study used was the Clayoquot Sound Sustainable Development Strategy Committee planning process (begun in January 1991). This particular case study was chosen because it was the first effort to use negotiations to provide advice to the provincial government on a regional sustainable development issue. It was also highly contentious and very public, therefore it is reasonably well-documented. One of the major flaws in how options were generated and assessed in this process was that insufficient time was spent clarifying stakeholders' values and underlying interests. This had repercussions throughout the negotiations. The problem was not well-defined and this meant it was difficult to generate options that met stakeholders' objectives. Option generation was hasty and was rooted in the status quo. In addition, technical information was collected at the beginning of the process, before objectives were clarified or options generated. This meant there was not a clear idea of how the information would be used to support the decision-making, and resulted in reports heavily loaded with descriptive information. Assessing the options generated was also subject to flaws: the first was that the analysis was based on values that were largely implicit and came primarily from technical experts. The second was that the status quo (the current state of conditions) was used to assess the impacts of proposed options. This led to the consistent overestimate of jobs losses caused by the reduction in harvest level associated with withdrawal of forest land from the commercial land base. Despite these difficulties, this process greatly increased stakeholders' understanding of both the technical issues involved and the difficulties of governing. The social learning aspect of the process is an important legacy and may make future decision-making processes in the area easier. However, improvements in the generation and assessment of options are needed to improve negotiations. Importantly, the problem needs to be well-defined and well-structured. To achieve this, the objectives hierarchy approach is promoted here. It is relatively simple to use in practice, and forces stakeholders' to examine their values and underlying interests. This means that they are more able to generate options that. meet these. interests (rather than their well-entrenched positions). To help move beyond the status quo to create imaginative options, it also useful to ask stakeholders to think about how to achieve their objectives. Once objectives have been clarified and imaginative options have been generated, then the technical information required to assess options can be identified and collected. This leads to the collection of more functional, and less descriptive, information which will be more useful to inform the decision-making. When assessing options, uncertainty in the data, and implicit judgments by technical experts should be made explicit and bounded with probabilities. This improves confidence in the data. Lastly, the base case, which incorporates current trends and is a more reliable predictor of future conditions than the status quo, should be used as a basis for comparing options. It is especially important to consider the effects of declining rates of employment due to mechanization and the fall-down effect in the base case scenario, in order to get a more realistic estimate of the true jobs losses due to reduced harvests, with and without land withdrawals.

This thesis examines how stakeholder values should be clarified in consensus-based processes in order to provide the framework for the generation of options, the collection of technical information and the assessment of options. The specific context is forest land use planning in British Columbia, particularly with respect to creating protected areas. A case study approach was used. The case study used was the Clayoquot Sound Sustainable Development Strategy Committee planning process (begun in January 1991). This particular case study was chosen because it was the first effort to use negotiations to provide advice to the provincial government on a regional sustainable development issue. It was also highly contentious and very public, therefore it is reasonably well-documented. One of the major flaws in how options were generated and assessed in this process was that insufficient time was spent clarifying stakeholders' values and underlying interests. This had repercussions throughout the negotiations. The problem was not well-defined and this meant it was difficult to generate options that met stakeholders' objectives. Option generation was hasty and was rooted in the status quo. In addition, technical information was collected at the beginning of the process, before objectives were clarified or options generated. This meant there was not a clear idea of how the information would be used to support the decision-making, and resulted in reports heavily loaded with descriptive information. Assessing the options generated was also subject to flaws: the first was that the analysis was based on values that were largely implicit and came primarily from technical experts. The second was that the status quo (the current state of conditions) was used to assess the impacts of proposed options. This led to the consistent overestimate of jobs losses caused by the reduction in harvest level associated with withdrawal of forest land from the commercial land base. Despite these difficulties, this process greatly increased stakeholders' understanding of both the technical issues involved and the difficulties of governing. The social learning aspect of the process is an important legacy and may make future decision-making processes in the area easier. However, improvements in the generation and assessment of options are needed to improve negotiations. Importantly, the problem needs to be well-defined and well-structured. To achieve this, the objectives hierarchy approach is promoted here. It is relatively simple to use in practice, and forces stakeholders' to examine their values and underlying interests. This means that they are more able to generate options that. meet these. interests (rather than their well-entrenched positions). To help move beyond the status quo to create imaginative options, it also useful to ask stakeholders to think about how to achieve their objectives. Once objectives have been clarified and imaginative options have been generated, then the technical information required to assess options can be identified and collected. This leads to the collection of more functional, and less descriptive, information which will be more useful to inform the decision-making. When assessing options, uncertainty in the data, and implicit judgments by technical experts should be made explicit and bounded with probabilities. This improves confidence in the data. Lastly, the base case, which incorporates current trends and is a more reliable predictor of future conditions than the status quo, should be used as a basis for comparing options. It is especially important to consider the effects of declining rates of employment due to mechanization and the fall-down effect in the base case scenario, in order to get a more realistic estimate of the true jobs losses due to reduced harvests, with and without land withdrawals. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate