In the recent wake of media reports of peer victimization and its deleterious effects, this study sought to create a personality profile of the individual who is able to resist social, personal and group pressures in order to help a victim of bullying behavior. This research is based on findings from a study by Dr. Elizabeth Midlarsky on rescuers and bystanders during the Holocaust (Midlarsky, Fagin-Jones and Nemeroff, 2006). The present study examined the differences in personality variables of individuals who were either rescuers or bystanders in a peer bullying situation that occurred in the virtual medium of Second Life. Additionally, due to the novel nature of this experimental medium, this study also examined the utility of Second Life as a mechanism for creating realistic psychological experiences. Independent variables included the following personality variables: locus of control, social responsibility, altruism, morality, autonomy, tolerance, risk taking, and empathy, and the participant's experience in the virtual medium was assessed by: realism of the scenario, realism of the world and immersion. The dependent variable was whether or not the participant intervened in the animated scenario by helping the victim. This study featured a unique experimental design that utilized a virtual experimental space to examine a psychological question. After completing pre-test test measures of personality factors, participants were given a cover story that asked them to explore a virtual university campus. Immediately following the participant's response, post-test questions assessed knowledge of the bystander effect, peer victimization experiences, and the experience of the participant in the virtual world. Debriefing sessions also ascertained personal reactions of each participant. Findings indicated that people reporting more immersion in the Second Life scenarios were more likely to intervene on behalf of the bullied person. In accordance with Midlarsky, Fagin-Jones and Nemeroff (2006), the rescuers in this study exhibited higher levels of empathy when compared to bystanders. However, no significant differences were found for other personality correlates of altruism. Instead, relationships were found among participants who intervened in the animated scenario and those who reported finding the virtual scenario a realistic representation of a peer victimization incident. Several important differences between the Midlarsky, Fagin-Jones and Nemeroff (2006) studies and this study account for the differential results. Most notable is that this study is a one-time reaction to an event in a virtual world which presented only a possible emotional risk to the rescuers and victims. On the other hand, Holocaust rescuers typically risked their lives continually, over an extended time period. While the personality profiles of the bystanders and rescuers in a realistic, traumatizing incident was not ascertained, the significant effect of empathy accords with the existing body of altruism research.

The current study explores the association between expressive flexibility, attachment, interpersonal dependency, and complicated grief among a sample of middle-aged bereaved adults. A relatedness framework, which encompasses specific and more generalized relational interpersonal behaviors, was utilized to broaden the frame of inquiry. This study represents one of the first systematic efforts to examine conjointly attachment and dependency behaviors in a middle-aged bereaved population. It is also one of the first empirical explorations of the association between dependency and expressive flexibility. The Experiences in Close Relationships - Revised questionnaire (ECR-R; Fraley, Waller, and Brennan, 2000) was employed to derive anxious and avoidant attachment schemas. Adaptive and maladaptive interpersonal dependence were measured utilizing the Relationship Profile Test (RPT; Bornstein and Languirand, 2003). Participants were asked to express, suppress, or behave normally to evocative images. Observer ratings of participants' responses were used to measure expressive enhancement and suppression ability. Results indicated a significant association between expressive flexibility factors, attachment, and complicated grief, and more notably a relationship between dependency and complicated grief. Results also revealed adaptive dependence (i.e., healthy dependency) as the strongest predictor of complicated grief, above and beyond attachment related anxiety and avoidance. The data also suggested that expressive enhancement ability moderates the relationship between healthy dependency and complicated grief, such that the interaction between low expressive enhancement ability and low healthy dependence predict significantly increase the likelihood of complicated grief. Taken together, the findings of this study suggest the importance of including expressive flexibility and dependency factors in understanding complicated grief. The clinical implications of these findings are also discussed.

The negative effects of trauma exposure on youth behavior and mental health has included internal disturbances that cause distress to the individual, as well as, externalizing behaviors that cause distress to others. Researchers have also argued that trauma exposure can have a positive impact on psychosocial development, in that it can lead people to align with others, rather than turn against them. In an effort to identify factors that might nullify the association between trauma exposure and subsequent negative consequences, this paper examines the relationship between trauma exposure and prosocial behavior in Sierra Leone, Togo, Burkina Faso and Liberia. Results indicate that total trauma exposure was negatively associated with prosocial behavior in Sierra Leone and Liberia, while the inverse relationship was found in Togo and Burkina Faso, where trauma exposure was shown to have a positive association with prosocial behavior. The effect of trauma exposure on prosocial behavior varied by gender in Togo; among girls, trauma exposure had a positive significant association with prosocial behavior, however it did not impact prosocial behavior among boys. Lastly, the negative impact of trauma exposure on prosocial behavior found in Sierra Leone is partially explained by the indirect effect of PTSD and depression. Results are discussed in the context of individual and environmental differences that promote risk or resilience. Limitations and future implications for research, and practice are discussed.

The transition into motherhood has long been conceptualized as a time of psychological upheaval. However, when examining rates of postpartum psychopathology, it appears that more women adapt well to this change than do not. In keeping with research in the fields of positive psychology and resilience, it appears that naturally occurring protective factors may aid a woman through this transition. This dissertation proposes the idea that qualities of mindfulness, while typically cultivated through training, may be naturally protective against psychopathology during times of adjustment and development. Specifically, this paper examines the transition from pregnancy into the postpartum period. I examine pregnant women's levels of mindful, momentary awareness and analyze how these levels predict the self-reported emotional experience of giving birth, as well as postpartum levels of anxiety and depression. Future directions and limitations are discussed.

A relationship between interpersonal functioning and depression has been suggested by theorists and empirical studies. However, there are a limited number of studies focusing specifically on the association between depression, interpersonal distress, and interpersonal problems as assessed by the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems-32 (IIP-32). The present study investigates under-explored or overlooked aspects of the literature that outline this relationship. Initially, the study set out to examine interpersonal markers of depression in a sample of 170 individuals seeking psychoanalytic or psychodynamic treatment. A unique aspect of this study is that the examination of depression involved categorizing individuals as depressed based on either categorical Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Disorders (SCID) or severity measures Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD) and Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptamotology (QIDS). A correlation was found between depression severity (assessed by the HRSD and QIDS) and overall interpersonal distress and 6 of the 8 interpersonal problems. We further demonstrated that irrespective of the measure used to define depression, depressed individuals had greater overall interpersonal distress than non-depressed individuals. Depressed individuals also had significantly higher scores on several of the IIP subscales (too aggressive, too dependent, too caring, hard to be sociable, hard to be involved, and hard to be assertive). The gender analyses suggested that men had significantly more interpersonal distress than women and that men and women had significantly different scores on the hard to be supportive and hard to be involved subscales (scores were higher for men) as well as the too aggressive sub scale (scores were higher for women). Across our initial analyses we found that interpersonal distress also differed based on PD severity. Although both depression and PD severity were significantly associated with interpersonal distress, these independent variables did not interact. We attributed this to comorbidity between depression and Axis II pathology, correlation between measures and the fact that each variable had several levels. We therefore conducted secondary analyses by subdividing and recategorizing the sample into new groups based on both depression and Axis II diagnoses. Results revealed that individuals who were diagnosed with both depression and at least one PD had the greatest amount of interpersonal distress relative to those with one or neither of the disorders (depression or PD). When focusing on depression, gender, and interpersonal functioning, results indicated an absence of gender differences. Men and women with a comorbid personality disorder did not differ in interpersonal distress and had significantly greater interpersonal impairment than men or women who were solely depressed. Furthermore, solely depressed men and women did not differ in interpersonal distress. In terms of the subscale analyses the depressed group with comorbid Axis II pathology had greater distress related to a number of interpersonal problems: hard to be sociable, hard to be assertive, too aggressive, too dependent, hard to be involved, and too caring. There were several further group differences that were particularly salient. Depressed and non-depressed individuals (free of Axis II pathology) did not differ on any of the IIP subscales. However, the exclusively depressed group differed from the depressed group with PD on four subscales (hard to be sociable, hard to be assertive, too aggressive, and too dependent). Focusing solely on Axis II pathology, in the absence of depression, individuals with a PD and no depression had significantly more distress than individuals with no PD and no depression on several subscales (hard to be sociable, hard to be involved, too dependent, and hard to be assertive). Moreover, on these subscales, we saw that this PD group behaved similarly to the comorbid group (i.e. depressed with PD) as both differed from the healthiest group (i.e. non-clinically depressed without PD). However, the comorbid group had higher mean scores. These findings suggest that depression may not be associated with a pattern of interpersonal distress, however Axis II pathology might be. Although there is variability in group differences, what is consistent is that the comorbid group had greater interpersonal distress. For individuals who are depressed, the presence of Axis II pathology seems to increase the severity of interpersonal problems. Results from the analyses of the subscales comparing men and women provide further evidence that interpersonal functioning is most problematic in the context of comorbidity. A consistent finding when examining the group of depressed men is that men with PD had significantly greater interpersonal distress on all of the subscales related to social interaction and connection (i.e. hard to be involved, hard to be supportive, hard to be sociable, and hard to be assertive). Women with PD had significantly greater interpersonal distress related to being too aggressive than depressed men with PD. Furthermore, both depressed men and depressed women with PD had significantly greater distress than depressed women without PD on the too dependent subscale. In addition, the current study also found that individuals who over-reported their depressive severity relative to the clinician (defined as a higher score on the QIDS than on the HRSD) had significantly greater odds of having a Cluster B personality disorder, moderate interpersonal distress, and moderate or severe anxiety. In summary, the initial difference between depressed and non-depressed individuals and depressed men and women in terms of overall and specific interpersonal distress became more nuanced when Axis II pathology was considered. Results consistently suggest that interpersonal distress is most exacerbated by comorbidity. The study concludes with a discussion of study limitations and directions for future research.

Individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) are prone to intense emotional reactions and dysfunctional interpersonal relationships, which may be associated with disruptions in cognitive functioning. However, research comparing neurocognitive functioning in BPD compared to patients with comorbid disorders like MDD and healthy control groups has been inconclusive. This study was the first to directly measure BPD individuals' working memory capacities under stressful conditions, using an experimentally manipulated, in-vivo social stressor. The primary aims of this study were to investigate the impact of emotional distress on working memory performance in the context of a psychological stress procedure (Trier Social Stress Test) and to determine whether emotion-induced working memory disruption was stronger for participants with BPD (n = 60) than for participants with MDD (n = 30) or healthy controls (n = 21). Results showed that emotional distress positively predicted working memory errors in the sample overall, with self-reported feelings of confusion and vigor accounting for this relationship. However, there were no basic working memory differences between BPD participants, MDD participants, and controls. BPD participants were also not more likely to have impairments in working memory as a consequence of emotional distress compared to participants with MDD. Participants with BPD were more likely to have had a history of self-injurious behavior, showed poorer psychosocial functioning, and showed higher levels of depression, anxiety, aggression, and impulsivity. When the effects of emotional distress were controlled for, participants with BPD were shown to have superior working memory performance, while MDD participants were shown to have poorer working memory performance, compared to the sample mean. Findings from the current study underscore the need to account for emotional distress when examining working memory in BPD and MDD groups. Mood fluctuations and emotional reactivity may play a larger role than pathophysiological factors in characterizing neurocognitive performance in these groups. These findings could point to a deficit in MDD, perhaps characterized by insufficient reactivity to the mobilizing effects of mild stress. Alternatively, BPD individuals' greater attunement and sensitivity to others' emotional states may paradoxically confer an advantage when pure attentiveness and concentration are called for. Future research should aim to identify psychological and neurocognitive strengths among individuals with BPD. Given the equivocal and complex findings on neurocognitive performance in BPD to date, more research is needed to develop a clear profile.

There has been a large body of literature on the robust protective benefits of religion and spirituality against mental illness. The majority of these studies have looked at the buffering effects of religiosity against depression and the positive association between a religious worldview and wellbeing. A primary understanding of this relationship has been that religiosity increases one's ability to cope with life's stress as well as make meaning out of suffering yet little research has been done with survivors of trauma, a population at increased risk for mental illness. Furthermore, there is evidence that the pathway to developing the protective buffer of intrinsic religiosity inherently includes periods of depression and spiritual searching which serve as the catalyst for the process yet it is not well understood how trauma may impact this development. The primary aims of this study are to investigate the relationship between religiosity and depression in adult survivors of childhood physical and sexual abuse across several religious and spiritual dimensions. Results suggest that 1) In the overall sample, high attendance and high religious faith importance are protective against a diagnosis of depression while high spiritual life importance, having a religious experience, childhood physical abuse, and childhood sexual abuse are associated with a depression diagnosis; 2) For individuals without a reported abuse history, high attendance and high religious faith importance are protective against depression while having a religious experience and rating one's spiritual life as highly important were shown to be associated with depression; 3) Childhood physical abuse significantly impacts the protective relationship between high attendance and depression diagnosis and high religious faith importance and depression diagnosis and survivors of childhood physical abuse who also rated their religious faith as important and reported high attendance were more likely to have a depression diagnosis; 4) When childhood physical abuse survivors endorse strongly agreeing that their religious/spiritual beliefs are a guide to daily living they are less likely to have a diagnosis of depression; 5) In survivors of childhood sexual abuse, high religious faith importance and being led spiritually are protective against a depression diagnosis.

The current study addresses the presence of perceived homonegative microaggressions, every day verbal, behavioral, and environmental slights towards LGB individuals. The Homonegative Microaggressions Scale (HMS; Wright & Wegner, 2012) was used to measure the frequency of LGB specific microaggressions in two samples recruited through social networking sites, LGB listservs, online LGB communities, and Amazon Mechanical Turk, an online marketplace for individuals willing to complete tasks. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted on data from the first wave of 120 participants resulting in a four-factor model indicative of specific themes of microaggressions found within the HMS. A confirmatory factor analysis used on data from the second wave of 302 participants verified these findings. Additionally, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) and the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Identity Scale (LGBIS) were used to assess potential outcomes of a range of specific forms of homonegative microaggressions through a multivariate multiple regression analysis. Structural equation modeling revealed four distinct themes of homonegative microaggressions including Assumed Deviance, Second-Class Citizen, Assumptions of Gay Culture, and Stereotypical Knowledge and Behavior. Clinical implications and future directions for research are also discussed.

The primary aims of this study were to: 1) Examine prominent trajectories of social preference over the course of middle school among affluent adolescents; and 2) Identify which social preference trajectories are significantly linked to clinical status (i.e., levels of anxiety and depression) and academic performance among affluent adolescents in short-term (end of 8th grade) and long-term (end of 12th grade) adjustment. Social preference was operationalized as the difference between the number of an individual’s “liked most” peer nominations and “liked least” peer nominations, thus distinguishing middle schoolers who were genuinely prosocial, from those who may have been simultaneously well-regarded by some for their dominance or aggression, while also disliked by others in their peer group. Participants were 286, mostly Caucasian students (136 girls and 150 boys) from three middle schools in one town, where the mean annual family income was $124,000. Questionnaires were used to collect data on clinical symptoms and other outcome variables. Data on academic performance was provided by the school. Using each student’s level of social preference in 6th, 7th, and 8th grades as grouping variables, five trajectories of social preference were identified across 6th, 7th, and 8th grade: consistently high, increasing over time, decreasing over time and two fluctuating trajectories that were both low in social preference. Fluctuating trajectories were labeled Low Cluster “A” and Low Cluster “V” (capturing their curvilinear patterns across three years) and subjected to further analyses. Multivariate analysis of variance was employed to examine the links between these five prominent social preference trajectories and five outcome variables. The trajectory of social preference across 6th, 7th, and 8th grades was not related to long-term adjustment in either clinical status or academic performance, but there were significant effects on short-term adjustment. Adolescents who were consistently high in social preference reported significantly higher 8th grade GPAs and significantly lower levels of anxiety and depression than those in other trajectories. Low Cluster “A”, which was characterized by an increase in social preference from 6th to 7th grade, and a subsequent decrease from 7th to 8th grade, exhibited the lowest GPA. Low Cluster “V”, which was characterized by a decrease in social preference from 6th to 7th grade, and a subsequent increase from 7th to 8th grade, presented significantly more anxiety and depression. This study shows that, overall, middle school students at the low end of social preference suffer clinically and academically, but only in the short term (at the end of middle school) with differences dissipated by grade 12. Moreover, there are distinct changes in social status during middle school that are associated with academic and clinical status.

This dissertation focuses on the impact of sibling relationship quality on psychological outcomes in 1361 emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 29. Previous research has demonstrated a strong link between sibling relationship quality and psychosocial well-being; however, these studies have focused mostly on children, adolescents, and later life adults. There has been little research exploring the effects of sibling relationship quality on psychological well-being in emerging adults. Because emerging adulthood is a time of considerable change, it has been deemed important to better understand the association between the perceived quality of the sibling relationship (warmth, conflict, and/or rivalry) and both sibling relationship variables (age difference, gender concordance, sibling contact, and minority status) and psychological variables (positive affect, negative affect, self esteem, and altruism) during this developmental time period. Results suggest that, in this sample, the quality of the sibling relationship, as measured by warmth, conflict, and rivalry is significantly related to measures of psychological outcome, specifically affectivity, self-esteem, and altruism, while controlling for demographic and familial structural variables (age difference, gender concordance, sibling contact, and minority status) in emerging adulthood.