The program of research reported here was concerned with what makes difficult face-to-face communication in work settings difficult. A framework for analysing this problem was developed by bringing together the disparate literatures of communications theory and cognitive appraisal theory. The framework identified the outcome of an instance of face-to-face communication at work as a function of features of the situation, the appraisal that the worker makes in the situation, and the response strategies selected for dealing with the situation. The research program was directed to operationalising these constructs and studying their interrelationship. The first two studies reported in the thesis (Studies 1 and 2) revealed the types of communication encounters that are most difficult to manage at work, and offered insight into why these situations are difficult. Qualitative and quantitative data were gathered and the quantitative data analysed using multidimensional scaling techniques. The results provided a taxonomy of difficult communication situations in the workplace. The next two studies (Studies 3 and 4) focused on the development of measures of primary and secondary appraisal, and on a taxonomy of response strategies applicable to work settings. A new measure of primary appraisal was developed from qualitative data pertaining specifically to the domain of difficult communication contexts. Principal components analysis was used in the development of the response strategies instrument. Study 5, the final study, reported the results of the application of cognitive appraisal theory to the context of difficult communication at work. In this study, the theory was applied to four difficult communication situations identified in Study 1, and the relationships among appraisal, response strategy, and outcome were investigated using principal components analysis and, subsequently, hierarchical regression analysis. The results indicated that, as the appraisal of the context varies, so too does the choice of response strategy, lending support to the transactional model. Appraisal contributes significantly to response strategy choice and to the outcome of the situation over and above that offered by response strategies alone. In addition, the findings revealed that appraisal of the situation differ across situations and according to the status of the other person in the encounter. The findings of the series of studies reported here point to the value of viewing difficult communication situations in the workplace in terms of the interrelated constructs of situations, appraisals, strategies rather than, as more commonly, in terms of characteristics of ‘difficult’ persons. Some situations are inherently more difficult than others, appraisals alter the difficulty level of situations, and the availability of response strategies influence outcome. Appraisal is, however, a construct of central importance, in much the same way it is in the research context from which it was appropriated, viz stress research. Appraisal contributes significantly to choice of response strategy and directly to outcome over an above the contribution of response strategy. The research program was not without its shortcomings, among them the reliance on retrospective reports of participants about their behaviour, and these need to be addressed in future research. The findings as they stand do, however, point to more useful ways of conceptualising difficult situations at work and devising methods of intervention that will ensure better outcomes, in a significant area of life in the modern workplace.

The research investigated consumers' decision-making process during pre-adoption and consumption stages of consumer-based technologies via the context of mobile apps. In an attempt to integrate consumer resistance in predicting the end-decisions to adopt/not adopt or continue/discontinue the use of a technology, the study presented some interesting findings. Employing the theoretical framework of cognitive appraisal theory, the study integrated the TAM, paradoxes of technology, and coping strategies to propose and empirically validate a process-based model of decision-making.Data were collected via a self-administered web-based survey. Two versions of the questionnaire were used to elicit consumers' responses from adopters and non-adopters of mobile apps. A total of 646 smartphone owners responded to the survey, of which, 375 respondents had downloaded apps in the past and 271 respondents had not downloaded any apps. The proposed hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling.Results demonstrated that most part of the TAM3 framework is replicable in a consumer-based setting. Additional findings provided evidence for the strong role of goal relevance in the TAM framework. The study also supported the effect of perceived usefulness and perceived ease-of-use on different technology paradoxes. The factor structure of the technology paradoxes suggested three distinct dimensions. Consumers' evaluation of control, freedom, newness, assimilation, and fulfillment of need as derived from the use of mobile apps was captured by Perceived Benefits. The construct, Perceived Apprehension, comprised of consumers' assessment of the chaos, enslavement, obsolesce, isolation, and creation of needs as a result of using mobile apps. Finally, the factor, Perceived Obscurity, investigated the confusion and/or ambiguity within individuals by measuring their perceived inefficiency and incompetence in using mobile apps.Most importantly, separate investigations of the pre-adoption and consumption stages highlighted consumers' use of varying degrees of resistance as influenced by their appraisal of the technology. The non-adopters resisted the use of mobile apps by either being indifferent towards it or postponing the decision to adopt. The adopters of mobile apps were also found to reject its use by distancing, abandoning, or neglecting the apps. The role of positive coping investigated the positive behavioral tendencies employed by consumers to overcome the challenges of using mobile apps. Managerial implications are discussed.

Abstract Purpose - The purpose of this study is to extend the current understanding of NCE and its antecedents. Design/methodology/approach - A deductive approach was used to confirm the proposed model of NCE using structural equation modeling. Data was collected online using self-selection questionnaires, resulting in 252 responses used in the quantitative analysis. Seven hypotheses were tested in the analysis.  Findings - The primary findings of the study is that perceived injustice acts as an antecedent of cognitive and affective NCE, which in turn drive behavioral NCE. Accordingly, the proposed tri-dimensional framework of NCE, consisting of a cognitive, affective, and behavioral component, was supported. Negative service quality disconfirmation was not supported as an antecedent of NCE.  Originality/value - The originality of the paper lies in the testing of NCE and the proposed drivers as a unique construct, which has not previously been tested in quantitative research.

The status of women in Bangladesh has long been an issue, with high reports of negative perceptions regarding women’s capabilities. This is reflected in the poor position of women in the labor market, and combined with reports of poor mental health among women in Bangladesh, it raises the question of whether these issues are related. Previous research has found a relationship between perceived gender-based discrimination in the labor market and mental health. Since such research can justify preventative policy measures, we wanted to investigate if the same relationship can be found in a country heavily experiencing these issues, like Bangladesh. Based on the stress process theory and the cognitive appraisal theory, we expected to find a relationship between perceived gender-based discrimination and mental health. We investigated the relationship by analyzing survey data (N = 957) collected from the Sylhet district in Bangladesh through systematic random sampling. We used linear probability models in our main analysis, which indicated that women who experienced higher levels of discrimination were more than 30 percentage points likelier to suffer from poorer mental health than women who experienced lower levels of discrimination. We found the same relationship for all of our discrimination measurements. In addition, having decision-making power in the job role, having more wealth, and living in an urban area decreased the likelihood of suffering from poorer mental health when exposed to discrimination. There was no significant difference between using emotion-focused coping and problem-focused coping. We suggest that policies promoting higher education for women, accessible childcare, and women in high-status jobs could reduce gender-based discrimination in the labor market, improving mental health. / Kvinnors status har länge varit ett problem i Bangladesh där negativa uppfattningar om kvinnors förmågor är utbredda. Det speglas i kvinnors svaga position på arbetsmarknaden vilket, i kombination med rapporter om höga nivåer av mental ohälsa bland kvinnor i Bangladesh, väcker frågan om huruvida de relaterar till varandra. Tidigare forskning visar på ett förhållande mellan uppfattad könsdiskriminering på arbetsmarknaden och mental hälsa. Sådan forskning skulle kunna användas som stöd för motverkande politiska åtgärder. Vi ämnade därför att undersöka om förhållandet även finns i ett land som starkt erfar båda dessa problem, så som Bangladesh. I enlighet med teorierna “stress process theory” och “cognitive appraisal theory” förväntade vi oss ett förhållande mellan uppfattad könsdiskriminering och mental hälsa. Vi undersökte förhållandet genom att analysera enkätdata (N = 957) som samlats från Sylhetdistriktet i Bangladesh med hjälp av systematiskt urval. Vi använde linjära sannolikhetsmodeller i den huvudsakliga analysen. Resultatet visade att kvinnor som upplever högre nivåer av diskriminering hade mer än 30 procentenheter större sannolikhet att lida av sämre psykisk hälsa än kvinnor som upplever lägre nivåer av diskriminering. Vi fann samma förhållande för alla diskrimineringsmått. Utöver det minskade sannolikheten att lida av sämre psykisk hälsa vid exponering av diskriminering med beslutsfattande i sin arbetsroll, högre välstånd och bosättning i stadsområde. Det fanns ingen signifikant skillnad mellan att använda känslofokuserade copingstrategier och problemfokuserade copingstrategier. Vi föreslår att policyer som främjar högre utbildning hos kvinnor, tillgänglig barnomsorg och kvinnor i högstatusyrken kan minska könsbaserad diskriminering på arbetsmarknaden vilket skulle leda till bättre psykisk hälsa.

The restaurant industry is a highly customer-driven field. Therefore, it is imperative that restaurateurs consider customer expectations with regard to restaurant menus. The purpose of this experimental study is to examine the effects of menu format (i.e., paper or digital) and amount of nutritional information (i.e., extensive, brief, or none) on customer perceptions of the effectiveness, perceived ease of use, and information quality of the menu. Furthermore, this research intends to test the effect of these three menu attributes on the outcomes of value and satisfaction in order to assess the competitive advantage of one format over the other. The Cognitive Appraisal and Information Processing Theories provide structure to the proposed conceptual framework and give credence to the findings. This study also fills gaps in the present research by not only ameliorating weaknesses of extant studies, but also by examining several different aspects of restaurant menus simultaneously within a single study.