Whole document restricted, see Access Instructions file below for details of how to access the print copy. / Davison and Jenkins (1985) suggested that behaviour allocation between concurrent alternatives was affected by the the degree to which animals could discriminate between the response-reinforcer contingencies associated with each of those concurrent alternatives. The present study evaluated their models for free-operant concurrent-schedules performance and discrete-trial signal-detection performance. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained in six sets of conditions. In each set of conditions, two intensities of white light were used as the sample stimuli in a discrete-trial signaldetection procedure. The relative reinforcer frequency for correct choice responses was varied across conditions. The same two stimuli were then arranged as the discriminative stimuli in a switching-key concurrent schedule. The relative reinforcer frequency was varied across conditions. Then the intensity of one of the white lights was varied, and these procedures were repeated for the next set of conditions. Analysis of the data from the signal-detection procedures showed that the effect of varying relative reinforcer frequency decreased as discriminability between the stimuli increased. A new model of signal-detection performance, based on the Davison and Jenkins' (1985) model of concurrent-schedule performance, accounted for this interaction. There was ordinal relation between measures of stimulus discriminability obtained from the signal-detection procedure, and measures of the effect of varying relative reinforcer frequency obtained from the concurrent-schedule procedures.

The research reported in this thesis sought an explanation for the order of premodifiers in English nominal phrases. It aimed to establish what validity there is in the quite divergent earlier explanations, to find any other valid forms of explanation that might exist, and to integrate them all. The method was to make a wide survey of as many varieties of current English as possible, by observation; to then analyse the order at all levels (semantics, syntax, and so on); and to check the accuracy of the results against the 100-million-word British National Corpus. From that research, the thesis asserts that parts of most past approaches can be integrated into a comprehensive explanation; and that there is a new and important element of the full explanation, namely that of words' semantic structure, which is the combination of types and dimensions of meaning that make up the sense of each premodifier. Other new elements in this treatment of the subject are analysis of long groups of premodifiers (up to 10 words), consideration of why premodifiers regularly occur in different positions in the order, and explanation from the historical development of premodifier order. After an introductory chapter and a survey of the relevant literature, the thesis argues that the explanation of premodifier order in English nominal phrases is as follows. There are four positions for premodifiers, as in "your (1) actual (2) tinny (3) round (4) percussion instrument" [i.e. a tambourine] (chapter 3). The regular, unmarked order (illustrated in the phrase just quoted) has several elements of explanation: primarily, the semantic structure (chapter 4); secondarily, the syntactic structure (chapter 5). In a second type of order (when two or more words occur in one position), stylistic considerations control the order, not grammatical ones (chapter 7). In a third type of order, a marked one, a premodifier may be put in a position different from the position that the word's usual semantic structure would require, changing its meaning and stylistic effect (chapter 8). Some features of all three types of order are to be explained partly by their historical development - for example, the existence of borderline uses (chapter 9). There are some supporting explanations, from discourse structure and psycholinguistics, for example (chapter 10). The relevance of the previous chapters to wider issues, such as grammaticalisation, is discussed (chapter 11); and conclusions are drawn (chapter 12).

Experimental preparations may be divided into two categories, called open and closed economies. In an open economy, the extent to which the subject is deprived of the scheduled reinforcer, most commonly food, is controlled by the experimenter. This is usually done by manipulating the amount of free food given to the subject after each experimental session. Consumption of the reinforcer is thus independent of behaviour during the session. By contrast, in a closed economy, no alternative source of the reinforcer is available outside the session. Consumption of the reinforcer is thus completely determined by the subject’s interaction with the experimental environment. This may be done by having the subject live permanently within the experiment and receive all its food as reinforcers for responding on continuously available schedules. Most research in the experimental analysis of behaviour has been carried out within open economies, but it can be argued that the natural environment, as a whole, is better represented by a closed economy. Several experimental findings obtained within open economies have been shown not to be replicable within closed economies. In the present series of experiments, three pigeons received their total daily intake of food as reinforcers for responding on continuously available multiple variable-interval schedules. The relation between the allocation of responding between components of a multiple schedule and the distribution of reinforcers can be conveniently described by the generalised matching law, which states that the ratio of component response rates is a power function of the ratio of component reinforcer rates. In an open economy, the power, called sensitivity, is typically less than 1.0. This is called undermatching. Experiment 1 of the present series found sensitivity values substantially greater than 1.0.This is called overmatching. One procedural variable known to control sensitivity in open economies is level of deprivation. Experiments 2 to 5 examined the effect of deprivation in a closed economy. In Experiments 2 and 3, increasing deprivation by means of decreasing session duration produced decreases in sensitivity. In Experiment 4, increasing deprivation by decreasing overall reinforcer rate in continuous sessions had no effect on sensitivity. In Experiment 5, deprivation was held constant by changing session duration and overall reinforcer rate in opposite directions. Sensitivity increased with increasing session duration and decreasing overall reinforcer rate. Taken together, these results suggest that multiple-schedule sensitivity increases with decreasing deprivation, with decreasing overall reinforcer rate, and as the economy for reinforcers other than those arranged by the experimenter (extraneous reinforcers) becomes more closed. A quantitative model of multiple-schedule performance, elaborated from that of McLean and White (1983), was developed to account for these effects. In this model, response allocation is governed by the concurrent choice between scheduled-and extraneous-reinforcer rates within each component. The total rate of extraneous reinforcement is affected by both deprivation and economy, and the distribution of extraneous reinforcers between components depends inversely on the distribution of scheduled reinforcers. Unlike other published models, this model predicts overmatching in the present experiments. Quantitatively, the model accounts for both the present closed-economy data and published data from open-economy multiple schedules as well as does the generalised matching law, and better than does its most influential competitor, Herrnstein’s (1970) equation. Finally, it is proposed that, while the economy for scheduled reinforcers is important to understanding total response output on multiple schedules, the economy for extraneous reinforcers has much more influence on the allocation of that responding between components.

Attachment is generally described as an enduring affectional bond of substantial intensity. Bowlby’s (1982) attachment theory implies that optimal outcomes are associated with an attachment relationship that is characterised by a confidence in the accessibility and responsiveness of the caregiver. Three studies were designed to explore changes in New Zealand adolescents’ perceptions of their attachment to mothers, fathers, and friends, and the relative impact of these relationships on three measures of self esteem. Two dimensions of the attachment relationship were assessed, the utilisation of emotional support and proximity, and the quality of affect. Study 1 (n = 180) revealed that although adolescents utilised their mothers for support and proximity more than their fathers, and perceived their mothers as more responsive than fathers, they did not differ in their quality of affect towards their parents. Friends were utilised significantly more in support seeking situations than in proximity seeking situations. Study 2 (n = 493) revealed that male and female adolescents differed in their perceptions of their attachment to mothers in late adolescence. With increasing age, females reported that they would utilise maternal support and proximity more, whereas males reported utilising their mothers less in both types of situation. However, both male and female adolescents continued to report a high quality of affect towards their mothers throughout adolescence. No differences were found in male and female adolescents' perceptions of their attachment to fathers. With increasing age, males and females utilised paternal support and proximity less, and reported a lower quality of affect towards their fathers. Adolescents continued to utilise their friends highly for support throughout adolescence, and increased their utilisation of friends for proximity as they got older. Regardless of age, females reported a higher quality of affect towards their friends than males. These findings suggested that substantial changes take place in attachment relationships from early to late adolescence, and that these changes are affected by the sex of the adolescent and the sex of the parent. Further analyses revealed that Pacific Island adolescents utilised their mothers significantly less for support than European/Pakeha adolescents. Adolescents from one-parent families utilised their fathers significantly less for support and proximity, and had a lower quality of affect towards them than adolescents from two-parent families. The utilisation of support and proximity from mothers, fathers, and friends was minimally related to overall self esteem, coping abilities and social competence. The quality of affect towards mothers and fathers was significantly related to all three measures of self esteem, whereas the quality of affect towards friends was significantly related only to social competence. Adolescent attachment to parents appears to exert a relatively stronger effect on self esteem than adolescent attachment to friends, regardless of the sex or age of the adolescent. Study 3 (n = 80) examined the main reasons for utilising parents and friends for emotional support, and for feeling close to parents and friends. Content analysis revealed that the reasons did not differ according to the age or sex of the adolescent but varied according to the attachment figure. Overall, the three studies revealed that New Zealand adolescents’ descriptions of their relationships with parents and friends differed at both the cognitive-affective and behavioural levels of attachment. The divergent patterns of support seeking and proximity seeking highlighted these differences, and clearly illustrated the need to distinguish these two aspects of the behavioural dimension of attachment in adolescence. The implications of the findings for adolescent attachment to parents and friends are considered, and future directions for research are discussed.

The components of concurrent schedules of reinforcement were separated temporally by placing interval schedules on the changeover key. Both main and changeover key performances were examined as a function of the relative reinforcement rates and of the changeover schedule duration. Main key performances changed quantitatively, but not qualitatively, as the temporal separation of components increased, with performance becoming less sensitive to relative reinforcement rates with increasing temporal separation. In general, absolute response rates were adequately predicated by the relative reinforcement rates, but in some conditions the absolute response rate was also affected by the availability of the responses. The rates of responding to change between components were controlled by the reinforcement rates in the both of the concurrent schedule components, and, in some conditions, varied independently of main key response rates. The rates of responding to alternate between components were a direct function of the reinforcement rate in the absent component, and were an inverse function of the reinforcement rate for main key responding in the same component. Animals alternated between the concurrent schedule components even when alternation reduced the overall rate of obtained reinforcement.

Through the lens of the social identity approach (Haslam, 2004; Hogg & Terry, 2001) and in particular, the subjective group dynamics (SGD) model (Abrams, Randsley de Moura, Hutchison, & Viki, 2005) and an organisational justice perspective (Tyler & Blader, 2003), the current program of research set out to explore, in two phases, how anti-norm leaders can mitigate negative responses by their group members when they wish to lead their group towards the prescriptive norms of an outgroup. The first phase of the research, comprising three pilot tests, and Study 1, Study 2a and 2b investigated how anti-norm leaders were judged by ingroup members, and two possible moderators of this effect. Study 1 aimed to replicate the basic findings of Abrams et al. (2008) and explore whether group members’ evaluations of normative and deviant leaders would be moderated by the leaders’ method of gaining leadership (appointed vs. elected). Study 2a and 2b examined whether group members’ evaluations of normative and anti-norm leaders were moderated by the relationship of the ingroup to the authority who appointed the leader. The second phase of the research, comprising three pilot tests and Studies 3, 4 and 5, moved to consider what could help anti-norm leaders gain positive evaluations from members of their group in an organisational context. Drawing on the group engagement model (Tyler & Blader, 2003), the traditional leadership literature (Hollander, 1958; Hollander & Julian, 1970), and relevant literature from the social identity approach (Hornsey, 2005; Morton, Postmes, & Jetten, 2007) the second phase aimed to examine whether perceived respect from the leader could help the anti-norm leader to gain more positive evaluations from their group members. Study 3 replicated the design of Studies 2a and 2b in a pseudo-organisational scenario with perceived respect from the leader as an additional measured variable. Study 4 explored the impact of the informal quality of treatment (IQT) received by the ingroup members from the leader on perceptions of the anti-norm leader. In addition, the proposed mediating effect of perceived respect from the leader was examined. Study 5 examined whether respect for the group’s history by the leader would diminish the negative responses of group members to an anti-norm leader. Across the six pilot studies and six main studies, and consistent with the SGD model (Abrams et al., 2005; Abrams et al., 2008), normative leaders were consistently endorsed more, or evaluated more positively, than anti-norm leaders. Across the different testing contexts, incumbent anti-norm leaders were derogated regardless whether they were appointed or elected or whether the outgroup who appointed them had an incompatible or irrelevant relationship with the ingroup. Further, whilst showing high IQT to group members helped anti-norm leaders obtain similar evaluations as to those obtained by low IQT normative leaders, exhibiting high levels of respect for group history failed to help anti-norm leaders mitigate negative evaluations from their group members. These findings suggest that, in line Abrams et al. (2008), once an individual becomes a leader, group members do not take into consideration how that leader came to be or where they came from in evaluations. Instead, group members seem to focus on what the leader does, or can do, for the group. Whilst respect at the group, and particularly at the individual, level can have a limited impact on evaluations, it would seem that little that the leader can do on their own will moderate the negative evaluations of them that stem from the fact that their position fundamentally undermines the validity of prescriptive ingroup norms. As such, and consistent with SGD literature (Abrams et al., 2005; Abrams et al., 2008), the findings of the current program of research demonstrate the overwhelmingly robust motivation of group members to derogate anti-norm leaders who undermine prescriptive ingroup norms. For leaders faced with the challenging task of leading their ingroup towards the prescriptive norms of an outgroup, the findings of the current program of research suggest that, consistent with the group engagement model (Tyler & Blader, 2003) bolstering respect for group members through enacting both informal and formal procedures may be somewhat effective. Alternatively, and to carry the black sheep analogy dominant in this line of research further, the anti-norm leader may simply constitute the proverbial ‘sacrificial lamb’ – that is rejected and unpopular among the people he or she is supposed to lead.

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