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  • About
  • The Global ETD Search service is a free service for researchers to find electronic theses and dissertations. This service is provided by the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations.
    Our metadata is collected from universities around the world. If you manage a university/consortium/country archive and want to be added, details can be found on the NDLTD website.
1

Investigation of the entrainment and infiltration rates through air curtains of open low-front refrigerated display cabinets

Al-Sahhaf, Ahmad Ali January 2013 (has links)
The high energy demand associated with open multi-deck refrigerated display cabinets is a direct consequence of their open design. The interaction between the cold refrigerated air inside the cabinet and the relatively warm air of the supermarket takes place across the air curtain, which serves as a non-physical barrier between the customers and the products. It has been estimated that 70% to 80% of the cabinet’s cooling load is due to ambient air infiltration into the cabinet refrigeration apparatus, which was previously entrained through the descending air curtain. A new generation of display cabinets has immerged in recent years, where the display-to-floor area has increased for the sake of maximizing sales. This modification leaves the air curtain with a larger display opening to seal against. Therefore, the design of such cabinets has now become more challenging, especially when attempting to ensure product integrity and temperature homogeneity while attempting to minimize their energy consumption. In this work, advanced numerical and experimental techniques have been integrated to quantify and also minimize the entrainment rate through the air curtain and the infiltration rate into open low-front refrigerated display cabinets. Experimentally, the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique has been used to map the velocity profile along the air curtain while the Infrared (IR) Thermography technique has been used to map the temperature profile across the cabinet. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) technique has been used in both case and parametric studies after confirming its validation with experiment. CFD was found to be a valuable tool for the simulation of open low-front refrigerated display cabinets, and the credibility of the results was assured when the boundary conditions were fine-tuned by experimental data. This thesis has demonstrated a systematic procedure where the entrainment rate through the air curtain can be quantified. The effect of various Discharge Air Grille (DAG) parameters was studied, and it was found that the entrainment rate is highly sensitive to the velocity profile and magnitude at the DAG. A velocity profile with a ramp shape having the maximum velocity near the cabinet yielded the minimum entrainment rate, hence the cabinet cooling load was reduced. In addition, two techniques were introduced for the determination of the infiltration rate of the cabinet. The first utilises the tracer-gas method to determine the specific amounts of ambient dry air and water vapour entering the evaporator coil, and the second uses psychrometrics to quantify the infiltration load as well as the other cooling load components by identifying the various heat transfer processes encountered during the operation of the cabinet. The ambient air infiltrated into the cabinet, although corresponds to 31% of the total mass flow rate, was found to be responsible for at least 85% of the total cooling load of the cabinet. This indicates that low-front cabinet suffer more from infiltration. The contribution of this work is by providing a better understanding towards the entrainment and infiltration processes related to open refrigerated display cabinets. The new techniques introduced in this work can help designers to better assess the impact of different design parameters and quantify the amounts of the entrainment and infiltration rates associated with open low-front refrigerated display cabinets.
2

ANALYSIS OF LOW GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL FLUORIDE WORKING FLUIDS IN VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION ALTERNATIVES

Mota Babiloni, Adrián 18 April 2016 (has links)
[EN] Climate change is one of the short term threats for the humanity because it can affect seriously to the environment and, consequently, to vegetal and animal life. If it is not stopped in next years, maybe this effect will be irreversible. Climate change is produced by anthropogenic emissions of Greenhouse Gas to Earth's atmosphere. Vapour compression systems are one of the main contributors to this phenomenon. Among them, commercial refrigeration applications, through HFC usage, can be highlighted. Since 1990s, developed countries supermarkets are using refrigerants (mainly R134a, R404A and R507A) with great impact (high GWP values) on the climate change due to leakages, especially from parallel compressor rack DX systems. Recently, some regulations and directives have been approved to limit GWP values of HFC used in most extended refrigeration and air conditioning applications, directly affecting to commercial refrigeration. In this thesis, some low-GWP alternatives to replace the most commonly used HFC refrigerants in commercial refrigeration are evaluated, taking into account the limitations imposed by these regulations. To carry out this evaluation, the current status of parallel compressor rack refrigeration systems and their fluids has been reviewed. Then, the different low-GWP options to replace R134a and R404A have been studied. HFOs and their mixtures with HFC have been highlighted as the most promising drop-in or retrofit alternatives. Thus, R1234yf, R1234ze(E) and R450A were proposed to replace R134a and R448A to substitute R404A. The theoretical performance of the different low-GWP alternative fluids, as an overview of their potential use, has been studied at typical parallel compressor rack refrigeration operating conditions using the basic thermodynamic vapour compression cycle. Given the good theoretical performance of these refrigerants, they have been tested in a vapour compression test bench. From the experimental results it is depicted that R1234yf and R1234ze(E) are not acceptable as drop-in or light retrofit refrigerants from an energetic point of view. These fluids, when used in R134a systems, require system modifications (more severe in the case of R1234ze(E)) to achieve acceptable energy efficiency values. Moreover, due to the large refrigerant charge in PCRRS, both HFOs could present problems relating to security. Thus, while R450A presents a GWP value of 547, it appears as the best option to replace R134a due to the similar energy efficiency and properties. Its experimental mass flow rate and cooling capacity are slightly lower than R134a, but the final COP is approximately the same. The best R450A results when compared to R134a are obtained at higher CRs. Although can obtain better efficiency results in new systems, with a minor TXV adjustment R448A shows very high performance when it is used in R404A systems. Despite R448A lower cooling capacity than that R404A, this HFC/HFO mixture can achieve great CO2 equivalent emission reductions and it is recommended as lower-GWP replacement for R404A. / [ES] El cambio climático es una amenaza para la humanidad ya que puede afectar seriamente al medio ambiente y, en consecuencia, a la vida animal y vegetal. Si en los próximos años no se actúa para detenerlo, tal vez este efecto sea irreversible. Entre otros factores, el incremento de la temperatura global es producido por las emisiones antropogénicas de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera. La refrigeración comercial, basada en sistemas de compresión de vapor, contribuye de forma relevante a este fenómeno a través del uso de fluidos sintéticos como refrigerantes y del consumo de energía eléctrica procedente de combustibles fósiles. Desde la última década del siglo XX, los supermercados de países desarrollados utilizan HFCs como fluidos de trabajo, principalmente R134a, R404A y R507A. Estos gases, de alto potencial de calentamiento atmosférico (PCA), contribuyen al cambio climático al fugarse accidentalmente de los sistemas de refrigeración, destacando las centrales de compresores en paralelo conectadas a sistemas de expansión directa. El valor máximo de PCA de los HFCs utilizados en aplicaciones de refrigeración y aire acondicionado va a ser controlado por normativas comunitarias, afectando directamente a los fluidos usados comúnmente en refrigeración comercial. Esta tesis evalúa diferentes alternativas de bajo PCA para sustituir los refrigerantes HFC más utilizados en refrigeración comercial, teniendo en cuenta las limitaciones impuestas por las normativas actuales. Para llevar a cabo dicho estudio, se revisa el estado actual de los sistemas de centrales de compresores en paralelo y sus fluidos. A continuación, se analizan las diferentes opciones de bajo PCA para sustituir al R134a y R404A. Al destacar los HFOs y sus mezclas con HFCs como alternativas para realizar un reemplazo con pocas modificaciones del sistema (propiedades similares); R1234yf, R1234ze(E) y R450A son propuestos para sustituir al R134a y R448A para R404A. El rendimiento teórico de los diferentes fluidos alternativos de bajo PCA, para obtener una visión general del potencial de su uso, se estudia simulando las condiciones operativas típicas de las centrales de compresores en paralelo, usando el ciclo termodinámico de compresión de vapor básico. Dado el buen rendimiento mostrado por estos refrigerantes, son ensayados en un banco de pruebas de compresión de vapor. De los resultados experimentales se observa que R1234yf y R1234ze(E) no son aceptables desde un punto de vista energético como sustitutivos directos o con menores modificaciones. Dichos fluidos, cuando son utilizados en sistemas de R134a, requieren modificaciones del sistema (más severas en el caso del R1234ze(E)) para alcanzar valores aceptables de eficiencia energética. Por otra parte, debido a la gran carga necesaria en PCRRS, ambos HFOs podrían presentar problemas en cuanto a la seguridad. Así, mientras que el R450A presenta un valor de PCA de 547, aparece como la mejor opción para sustituir al R134a debido a una eficiencia energética y propiedades similares. El caudal másico y la capacidad frigorífica del R450A son ligeramente inferiores en comparación con las del R134a, pero por otra parte, el COP resultante es aproximadamente el mismo. Los mejores resultados obtenidos para R450A son obtenidas a altas tasas de compresión. Aunque puede ser obtenida una eficiencia energética más alta en sistemas de nuevo diseño, con sólo un ajuste menor de la válvula de expansión termostática, el R448A muestra valores muy altos de rendimiento en sistemas utilizados con R404A. A pesar de que la capacidad frigorífica del R448A es menor que la del R404A, esta mezcla de HFC y HFO puede dar lugar a grandes reducciones de emisiones de CO2 equivalentes, siendo así recomendado como reemplazo del R404A con menor PCA. / [CA] El canvi climàtic és una amenaça per a la humanitat ja que pot afectar seriosament el medi ambient i, en conseqüència, la vida animal i vegetal. Si en els propers anys no s'actua per aturar-lo, potser aquest efecte siga irreversible. Entre altres factors, l'increment de la temperatura global és produït per les emissions antropogèniques de gasos d'efecte hivernacle a l'atmosfera. La refrigeració comercial, basada en sistemes de compressió de vapor, contribueix de manera rellevant a aquest fenomen per l'ús de fluids sintètics com refrigerants i pel consum d'energia elèctrica procedent de combustibles fòssils. Des de l'última dècada del segle XX, els supermercats dels països desenvolupats utilitzen HFCs com fluids de treball, principalment R134a, R404A i R507A. Aquests gasos, d'alt potencial d'escalfament atmosfèric (PCA en castellà), contribueixen al canvi climàtic quan s'escapen accidentalment dels sistemes de refrigeració. D'aquest tipus de sistemes destaquen com a grans emissors de diòxid de carboni les centrals de compressors en paral·lel connectades a sistemes d'expansió directa. El valor màxim de PCA dels HFCs utilitzats en aplicacions de refrigeració i aire condicionat serà controlat per normatives comunitàries, cosa que afectarà directament els fluids utilitzats a la gran majoria de sistemes de refrigeració comercial. Aquesta tesi avalua diferents alternatives de baix PCA per substituir els refrigerants HFC més utilitzats en refrigeració comercial sense oblidar les limitacions imposades per les normatives actuals. Per dur a terme aquest estudi, es revisa l'estat actual dels sistemes de centrals de compressors en paral·lel i els seus fluids. A continuació, s'analitzen les diferents opcions de baix PCA per substituir l'R134a i l'R404A. Els HFOs i les seves mescles amb HFCs com alternatives destaquen per permetre una substitució amb poques modificacions del sistema (propietats similars); R1234yf, R1234ze(E) i R450A són proposats per substituir l'R134a i R448A per l'R404A. Per obtenir una visió general del potencial de l'ús dels diferents fluids alternatius de baix PCA, s'estudia el seu rendiment teòric mitjançant una simulació de les condicions operatives típiques de les centrals de compressors en paral·lel. Per a aquesta simulació s'empra el cicle termodinàmic de compressió de vapor bàsic. Com a conseqüència del bon rendiment mostrat per aquests refrigerants, són assajats en un banc de proves de compressió de vapor. Dels resultats experimentals s'observa que R1234yf i R1234ze(E) no són acceptables des d'un punt de vista energètic com a substitutius directes o amb menors modificacions. Aquests fluids, quan són utilitzats en sistemes de R134a, requereixen modificacions del sistema (més severes en el cas de l'R1234ze(E)) per assolir valors acceptables d'eficiència energètica. D'altra banda, a causa de la gran càrrega necessària en PCRRS, tots dos HFOs podrien presentar problemes en temes de seguretat. Així, mentre que el R450A presenta un valor de PCA de 547, apareix com la millor opció per substituir l'R134a a causa de una eficiència energètica i propietats similars. El cabal màssic i la capacitat frigorífica de l'R450A són lleugerament inferiors en comparació amb les de l'R134a, però d'altra banda, el COP resultant és aproximadament el mateix. Els millors resultats de l'R450A són obtinguts a altes taxes de compressió. Tot i que pot ser obtinguda una eficiència energètica més alta en sistemes de nou disseny, amb només un ajust menor de la vàlvula d'expansió termostàtica, l'R448A mostra valors molt alts de rendiment en sistemes utilitzats amb R404A. Encara que la capacitat frigorífica de l'R448A és menor que la de l'R404A, aquesta barreja de HFCs i HFO pot aconseguir grans reduccions d'emissions de CO2 equivalents, i es per tant es recomanada com a reemplaçament amb menor PCA de l'R404A. / Mota Babiloni, A. (2016). ANALYSIS OF LOW GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL FLUORIDE WORKING FLUIDS IN VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEMS. EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION ALTERNATIVES [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/62680 / TESIS / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales
3

[en] MODELING OF NEW COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS OPERATING WITH LOW-GWP FLUIDS / [pt] MODELAGEM DE NOVOS SISTEMAS DE REFRIGERAÇÃO COMERCIAIS OPERANDO COM FLUIDOS DE BAIXO GWP

RICARDO FERNANDO PAES TIECHER 07 November 2018 (has links)
[pt] Configurações novas e tradicionais de sistemas de refrigeração comerciais foram comparadas considerando sua operação com fluidos refrigerantes alternativos. Primeiramente, desenvolveram-se modelos termodinâmicos para o ciclo transcrítico de dois estágios com refrigerante CO2 (CO2 booster) e para o sistema indireto com CO2 bifásico operando como fluido secundário (pumped CO2). Tais tecnologias foram, em seguida, comparadas com o ciclo de expansão direta (DX) por meio do COP e do consumo anual de energia. Nessa análise, R404A, CO2, e misturas não-azeotrópicas de baixo GWP foram utilizados como fluidos refrigerantes. Em segundo lugar, desenvolveu-se modelo de parâmetros concentrados para simular a operação em regime permanente do sistema de expansão direta com múltiplos compressores e evaporadores. O método multizona foi utilizado na modelagem dos trocadores de calor tubo-e-aleta, com a consideração de diferentes tipos de aletas e superfícies internas para os tubos. Resultados da simulação foram comparados com dados experimentais e, em seguida, calculou-se o impacto ambiental do sistema operando com diferentes refrigerantes de baixo GWP, por meio da metodologia LCCP. / [en] Comparison of new and conventional commercial refrigeration systems, operating with typical and alternative refrigerants, was performed. First, thermodynamic models for the pumped CO2 and the CO2 booster cycles were developed. The COP and the annual energy consumption of these novel designs were compared to those of the traditional direct expansion system in different geographic locations, to take into account year-round climate data. Refrigerant R404A, CO2 and new low-GWP non-azeotropic blends were considered as working uids in this analysis. Second, a component-based lumped parameter model to simulate the steady-state operation of a multicompressor multi-evaporator direct expansion system was developed. The modeling effort considered a multizone approach for the tube-and-fin heat exchangers, as well as addressing enhanced internal surfaces and different fin patterns. Predicted results were compared with experimental data, and a life cycle climate performance (LCCP) analysis was performed to compare the environmental impact of new low-GWP refrigerants.

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