Sandwich panels using fibre-reinforced composite skins and low-density cores are being increasingly used in the aerospace industry due to their superior specific strength and stiffness, and increased design flexibility over traditional metallic and composite structures. However, it is well-known that sandwich panels are highly vulnerable to the effects of impact damage, with even low-energy impacts potentially causing very severe reductions in the in-plane compressive strength of these structures. The objective of this project was to produce a faithful and reliable numerical model for the simulation of the compression-after-impact strength of composite sandwich panels. An in-depth literature review revealed that delamination within the skins of a sandwich panel is a damage mechanism that has gone almost entirely neglected in previous efforts at modelling this problem, despite the proven significance of this mechanism in the failure of impact damaged sandwich panels in compression. Consequently, the use of the cohesive zone model for delamination initiation and propagation is the key unique feature of this model, with Hashin s criteria being used for intra-laminar damage formation, and a simple plasticity response capturing core crushing. An experimental study is performed to produce a thorough dataset for model validation, featuring differing levels of damage induced via quasi-static indentation, and novel asymmetric panels with skins of unequal thickness (the thinner skin being on the unimpacted side). The experimental study revealed that the use of a thinner distal (undamaged) skin could improve the strength of mildly damaged sandwich panels over undamaged sandwich panels using the same asymmetric configuration. It is believed that this effect is due to the movement of the neutral plane of the sandwich panel caused by the reduction in the stability of the damaged skin through stiffness reduction and geometric imperfections. This removes the eccentricity of the compressive loading that exists in the undamaged asymmetric panels, which has mismatched axial stiffness between the indented skin and the thinner distal skin, and thus a noticeably lower ultimate strength than the undamaged symmetric panels. The sandwich model is developed using pre-existing experimental and material data, and trialled for a variety of different skin lay-ups, core thicknesses and indenter sizes. The numerical model generally agreed well with the ultimate stress found in the experiments for these different configurations, but is quite poor at estimating the magnitude of the damage induced by the indentation. When used to model the experimental study, the model gave generally good, conservative estimates for the residual compressive strength of both the symmetric and asymmetric panels. The tendency of the asymmetric panels to become stronger with mild damage was not captured by the model per se, with the numerical results instead showing an insensitivity to damage in the asymmetric panels, which was not shared by the symmetric panels. However, the numerical model did exhibit erroneous strain-stress responses for both panel configurations, particularly for the undamaged and mildly damaged cases. Investigations revealed that this erroneous behaviour was caused by inconsistency in the material data, which had been collected partially via experimentation and partly from literature sources. Overall, the model developed here represents a promising advancement over previous efforts, but further development is required to provide accurate damage states.

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O presente trabalho objetivou desenvolver e implementar, em escala laboratorial, uma rotina experimental com base em Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética Nuclear (IRMN) de modo a verificar seu potencial como metodologia não-destrutiva aplicável à inspeção quali- e quantitativa de água e hidrocarbonetos líquidos aprisionados no interior de células de núcleos-colméia utilizados na confecção de painéis-sanduíche compósitos estruturais de grau aeronáutico. Tentativas foram também realizadas no sentido de se observarem e caracterizarem danos por amassamento de núcleos-colméia, assim como de se detectar a presença de resina polimérica na forma sólida, visando, desta feita, verificar o uso do IRMN na inspeção de componentes previamente reparados e/ou contendo excesso de resina por falha do processo de manufatura. Concluiu-se que IRMN é uma poderosa ferramenta para a detecção e a quantificação de líquidos puros e compostos, ricos em hidrogênio, contidos nas células de núcleos de amostras extraídas de painéis-sanduíche compósitos. O potencial do IRMN na identificação, e, portanto, na discriminação entre os diversos fluidos se mostrou bastante promissor, desde que se empreguem ferramentas de processamento e análise computadorizada de imagens a partir de programas computacionais de reconhecimento de padrões via redes neurais artificiais e/ou sistemas com base em conhecimento. A técnica de IRMN utilizada neste estudo não permitiu a captura de imagens de resina polimérica sólida, nem mesmo quando à esta foram adicionadas cargas de elementos intensificadores de sinais de RMN, tais como ferro e gadolíneo. Danos no núcleo-colméia tão pequenos quanto 1,0 mm de profundidade e 1,8 mm de diâmetro foram clara e inequivocamente imageados e delineados pela técnica IRMN, desde que estivessem permeados por fluido hidrogenado (ex. água). A quantificação de líquidos nos núcleos-colméia por intermédio de ferramentas computacionais simples (processadores e analisadores de imagens) foi muito bem sucedida no caso dos líquidos com relativamente alto ponto de fulgor, pois as massas fluidas se mantiveram constantes por períodos de tempo significativamente longos no interior das células analisadas. / This work intended to develop and implement in laboratorial scale an experimental routine funded in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMRI) in order to verify its potential as a non-destructive methodology for quali- and quantitative inspection of liquid water and hydrocarbons entrapped in honeycomb core cells utilized to build up aeronautical grade structural composite sandwich panels. Attempts were also carried out to observe and characterize crush damage of honeycomb core, as well as to detect solid polymer resin towards the use of NMRI to assess previously repaired components and/or containing in excess resin amount due to manufacturing process faults. It has been concluded that NMRI is a powerful tool in detecting and quantifying hydrogen-rich pure and compound liquids contained in core cells of composite sandwich samples. The NMRI potential in identifying and, therefore, discriminating several fluids has shown very promising as long as computed image processing and analysis tools are employed from pattern recognition software via artificial neural networks and/or knowledge-based systems. The utilized NMRI technique failed in imaging solid polymer resin, even when the latter was loaded with NMR-signal intensifier elements such as iron and gadolinium. Honeycomb core damages as small as 1.0 mm in depth and 1.8 mm in diameter were clearly and unambiguously imaged and delineated by the NMRI technique since they were permeated with hydrogenated fluid (ex., water). The quantification of liquids in honeycomb cores by means of simple computational tools (image processor and analyzer) was very successful in case of relatively high flash point fluids, insofar as their masses remained constant within the analyzed cells for significantly long periods of time.

A lightweight carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sandwich panel has been developed for floor use in commercial office building construction. CFRP laminate skins were combined with low-density rigid polyurethane foam to create a composite sandwich panel suitable for floor use. The CFRP sandwich panel was optimized to withstand code prescribed office-building live loads using a 3D finite element computer program called SolidWorks. The thickness of the polyurethane foam was optimized to meet both strength and serviceability requirements for gravity loading. Deflection ultimately was the controlling factor in the design, as the stresses in the composite materials remained relatively low. The CFRP sandwich panel was then subjected to combined gravity and lateral loading, which included seismic loads from a fictitious 5-story office building located in a region of high seismic risk. The results showed that CFRP sandwich panels are a viable option for use with floors, possessing sufficient strength and stiffness for meeting code prescribed design loads, while providing significant benefits over traditional construction materials.

O presente trabalho objetivou desenvolver e implementar, em escala laboratorial, uma rotina experimental com base em Imageamento por Ressonância Magnética Nuclear (IRMN) de modo a verificar seu potencial como metodologia não-destrutiva aplicável à inspeção quali- e quantitativa de água e hidrocarbonetos líquidos aprisionados no interior de células de núcleos-colméia utilizados na confecção de painéis-sanduíche compósitos estruturais de grau aeronáutico. Tentativas foram também realizadas no sentido de se observarem e caracterizarem danos por amassamento de núcleos-colméia, assim como de se detectar a presença de resina polimérica na forma sólida, visando, desta feita, verificar o uso do IRMN na inspeção de componentes previamente reparados e/ou contendo excesso de resina por falha do processo de manufatura. Concluiu-se que IRMN é uma poderosa ferramenta para a detecção e a quantificação de líquidos puros e compostos, ricos em hidrogênio, contidos nas células de núcleos de amostras extraídas de painéis-sanduíche compósitos. O potencial do IRMN na identificação, e, portanto, na discriminação entre os diversos fluidos se mostrou bastante promissor, desde que se empreguem ferramentas de processamento e análise computadorizada de imagens a partir de programas computacionais de reconhecimento de padrões via redes neurais artificiais e/ou sistemas com base em conhecimento. A técnica de IRMN utilizada neste estudo não permitiu a captura de imagens de resina polimérica sólida, nem mesmo quando à esta foram adicionadas cargas de elementos intensificadores de sinais de RMN, tais como ferro e gadolíneo. Danos no núcleo-colméia tão pequenos quanto 1,0 mm de profundidade e 1,8 mm de diâmetro foram clara e inequivocamente imageados e delineados pela técnica IRMN, desde que estivessem permeados por fluido hidrogenado (ex. água). A quantificação de líquidos nos núcleos-colméia por intermédio de ferramentas computacionais simples (processadores e analisadores de imagens) foi muito bem sucedida no caso dos líquidos com relativamente alto ponto de fulgor, pois as massas fluidas se mantiveram constantes por períodos de tempo significativamente longos no interior das células analisadas. / This work intended to develop and implement in laboratorial scale an experimental routine funded in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (NMRI) in order to verify its potential as a non-destructive methodology for quali- and quantitative inspection of liquid water and hydrocarbons entrapped in honeycomb core cells utilized to build up aeronautical grade structural composite sandwich panels. Attempts were also carried out to observe and characterize crush damage of honeycomb core, as well as to detect solid polymer resin towards the use of NMRI to assess previously repaired components and/or containing in excess resin amount due to manufacturing process faults. It has been concluded that NMRI is a powerful tool in detecting and quantifying hydrogen-rich pure and compound liquids contained in core cells of composite sandwich samples. The NMRI potential in identifying and, therefore, discriminating several fluids has shown very promising as long as computed image processing and analysis tools are employed from pattern recognition software via artificial neural networks and/or knowledge-based systems. The utilized NMRI technique failed in imaging solid polymer resin, even when the latter was loaded with NMR-signal intensifier elements such as iron and gadolinium. Honeycomb core damages as small as 1.0 mm in depth and 1.8 mm in diameter were clearly and unambiguously imaged and delineated by the NMRI technique since they were permeated with hydrogenated fluid (ex., water). The quantification of liquids in honeycomb cores by means of simple computational tools (image processor and analyzer) was very successful in case of relatively high flash point fluids, insofar as their masses remained constant within the analyzed cells for significantly long periods of time.

In aerospace applications, use of laminates made of composite materials as face sheets in sandwich panels are on the rise. These composite laminates have low transverse shear and transverse normal moduli compared to the in-plane moduli. It is also seen that the corresponding transverse strength values are very low compared to the in-plane strength leading to delaminations. Further, in sandwich structures, the core is subjected to significant transverse shear stresses. Therefore the interlaminar stresses (i.e., transverse shear and normal) can govern the design of sandwich structures. As a consequence, the first step in achieving efficient designs is to develop the ability to reliably estimate interlaminar stresses. Stress analysis of the composite sandwich structures can be carried out using 3-D finite elements for each layer. Owing to the enormous computational time and resource requirements for such a model, this process of analysis is rendered inefficient. On the other hand, existing plate/shell finite elements, when appropriately chosen, can help quickly predict the 2-D displacements with reasonable accuracy. However, their ability to calculate the thickness-wise distributions of interlaminar shear and normal stresses and 3-D displacements remains as a research goal. Frequently, incremental refinements are offered over existing solutions. In this scenario, an asymptotically correct dimensional reduction from 3-D to 2-D, if possible, would serve to benchmark any ongoing research. The employment of a mathematical technique called the Variational Asymptotic Method (VAM) ensures the asymptotical correctness for this purpose. In plates and sandwich structures, it is typically possible to identify (purely from the defined material distributions and geometry) certain parameters as small compared to others. These characteristics are invoked by VAM to derive an asymptotically correct theory. Hence, the 3-D problem of plates is automatically decomposed into two separate problems (namely 1-D+2-D), which then exchange relevant information between each other in both ways. The through-the-thickness analysis of the plate, which is a 1-D analysis, provides asymptotic closed form solutions for the 2-D stiffness as well as the recovery relations (3-D warping field and displacements in terms of standard plate variables). This is followed by a 2-D plate analysis using the results of the 1-D analysis. Finally, the recovery relations regenerate all the required 3-D results. Thus, this method of developing reduced models involves neither ad hoc kinematic assumptions nor any need for shear correction factors as post-processing or curve-fitting measures. The results are most general and can be made as accurate as desired, while the procedure is computationally efficient. In the present work, an asymptotically correct plate theory is formulated for composite sandwich structures. In developing this theory, in addition to the small parameters (such as small strains, small thickness-to-wavelength ratios etc.,) pertaining to the general plate theory, additional small parameters characterizing (and specific to) sandwich structures (viz., smallness of the thickness of facial layers com-pared to that of the core and smallness of elastic material stiffness of the core in relation to that of the facesheets) are used in the formulation. The present approach also satisfies the interlaminar displacement continuity and transverse equilibrium requirements as demanded by the exact 3-D formulation. Based on the derived theory, numerical codes are developed in-house. The results are obtained for a typical sandwich panel subjected to mechanical loading. The 3-D displacements, inter-laminar normal and shear stress distributions are obtained. The results are compared with 3-D elasticity solutions as well as with the results obtained using 3-D finite elements in MSC NASTRAN®. The results show good agreement in spite of the major reduction in computational effort. The formulation is then extended for thermo-elastic deformations of a sandwich panel. This thesis is organized chronologically in terms of the objectives accomplished during the current research. The thesis is organized into six chapters. A brief organization of the thesis is presented below. Chapter-1 briefly reviews the motivation for the stress analysis of sandwich structures with composite facesheets. It provides a literature survey on the stress analysis of composite laminates and sandwich plate structures. The drawbacks of the existing anlaytical approaches as opposed to that of the VAM are brought out. Finally, it concludes by listing the main contributions of this research. Chapter-2 is dedicated to an overview of the 3-D elasticity formulation of composite sandwich structures. It starts with the 3-D description of a material point on a structural plate in the undeformed and deformed configurations. Further, the development of the associated 3-D strain field is also described. It ends with the formulation of the potential energy of the sandwich plate structure. Chapter-3 develops the asymptotically correct theory for composite sandwich plate structure. The mathematical description of VAM and the procedure involved in developing the dimensionally reduciable structural models from 3-D elasticity functional is first described. The 1-D through-the-thickness analysis procedure followed in developing the 2-D plate model of the composite sandwich structure is then presented. Finally, the recovery relations (which are one of the important results from 1-D through-the-thickness analysis) to extract 3-D responses of the structure are obtained. The developed formulation is applied to various problems listed in chapter 4. The first section of this chapter presents the validation study of the present formulation with available 3-D elasticity solutions. Here, composite sandwich plates for various length to depth ratios are correlated with available 3-D elasticity solutions as given in [23]. Lastly, the distributions of 3-D strains, stresses and displacements along the thickness for various loadings of a typical sandwich plate structure are correlated with corresponding solutions using well established 3-D finite elements of MSC NASTRAN® commerical FE software. The developed and validated formulation of composite sandwich structure for mechanical loading is extended for thermo-elastic deformations. The first sections of this chapter describes the seamless inclusion of thermo-elastic strains into the 3-D elasticity formulation. This is followed by the 1-D through-the-thickness analysis in developing the 2-D plate model. Finally, it concludes with the validation of the present formulation for a very general thermal loading (having variation in all the three co-ordinate axes) by correlating the results from the present theory with that of the corresponding solutions of 3-D finite elements of MSC NASTRAN® FE commercial software. Chapter-6 summarises the conclusions of this thesis and recommendations for future work.