Relatively few research efforts have focused on splice length requirements for reinforced masonry, despite the significant impact of these requirements on the safety, economy, and constructability of masonry walls. The Canadian masonry provisions for splice lengths in CSA S304.1-04 are taken directly from the Canadian concrete design standard, CSA A23.3-04, and thus do not necessarily reflect factors unique to masonry construction. Provisions in American masonry standard TMS 402-13/ACI 530-13/ASCE 5-13 are based on test results of double pullout specimens, but may be overly conservative due to shortcomings of the specimen type chosen. The purpose of this study is to examine the splice lengths needed for flexural masonry elements reinforced with bar sizes typically used in Canadian masonry construction. In this study, 27 wall splice specimens and 12 double pullout specimens were constructed. The wall splice specimens were tested horizontally in four point loading, while the double pullout specimens were tested in direct tension. Results from the double pullout specimen testing suggest that the techniques used at the University of Saskatchewan (U of S) are reasonably similar to those of the National Concrete Masonry Association (NCMA), and are thus adequate to assess current provisions in the American and Canadian standards. A predictive equation for the tensile resistance of spliced reinforcement was developed from the results of the wall splice specimen testing. This predictive equation was then adjusted to incorporate an adequate margin of safety for calculating splice length requirements for design purposes, using a five percent quantile approach. The adjusted predictive equation was then extrapolated to determine the splice lengths corresponding to the nominal yield strength of the reinforcement. These splice lengths were compared to current code provisions. It was found that the current CSA S304.1-04 Class B provisions, used almost exclusively in construction, are conservative for No. 15, 20, and 25 bars. In contrast, the TMS 402-13 provisions were overly conservative for all three bar sizes. Changes to the bar size factors of the current provisions for both codes were recommended to bring better consistency to the requirements of the two codes, and thus ensure the safety, economy, and constructability of masonry walls.

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete block (UPCB) shear walls are an effective seismic force resisting system due to their ability to contain expected damage attributed to their self-centering capabilities. A few design procedures were proposed to predict the in-plane flexural response of UPCB walls, albeit following only basic mechanics and/or extensive iterative methods. Such procedures, however, may not be capable of capturing the complex nonlinear relationships between different parameters that affect UPCB walls’ behavior or are tedious to be adopted for design practice. In addition, the limited datasets used to validate these procedures may render their accuracy and generalizability questionable, further hindering their adoption by practitioners and design standards. To address these issues, an experimentally-validated nonlinear numerical model was adopted in this study and subsequently employed to simulate 95 UPCB walls with different design parameters to compensate for the lack of relevant experimental data in the current literature. Guided by mechanics and using this database, an evolutionary algorithm, multigene genetic programming (MGGP), was adopted to uncover the relationships controlling the response of UPCB walls, and subsequently develop simplified closed-form wall behavior prediction expressions. Specifically, through integrating MGGP and basic mechanics, a penta-linear backbone model was developed to predict the load-displacement backbone for UPCB walls up to 20% strength degradation. Compared to existing predictive procedures, the prediction accuracy of the developed model and its closed-form nature are expected to enable UPCB wall adoption by seismic design standards and code committees. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

<p> The behavior of concrete block walls subjected to vertical compressive loads with out-of-plane eccentricities was investigated both experimentally and analytically. Particular attention was devoted to the effect of wall slenderness on capacity.</p> <p> In the experimental study, 14 full scale walls and numerous small specimens were tested to provide complete and reliable data concerning the behavior of concrete block walls and its components. Plain walls and partially grouted reinforced walls were tested in symmetric single curvature under compressive loads with out-of-plane eccentricities. Reinforced walls were tested in pure bending, as well.</p> <p> Prisms were tested to analyze the behavior of concrete masonry in compression with no slenderness or eccentricity effects. Bond tests were carried out to determine the behavior at interfaces of grout and steel reinforcing bars as well as between mortar and concrete blocks. Material tests were conducted to determine the mechanical properties of the blocks, mortar, grout and steel reinforcement used.</p> <p> A two-dimensional finite element model for the vertical cross section of block masonry walls was developed. It is capable of modeling local failure modes such as cracking, crushing and debonding. Material properties of the concrete blocks, mortar, grout, and steel bars were treated individually. The large deformation analysis allowed for consideration of the slenderness effect. The model was verified through comparison with experimental results. Fairly good agreement was obtained.</p> <p> The material properties of specimens tested during the experimental investigation were the basis of a parametric study. Results of this study were used to investigate the effect of the wall slenderness and the eccentricity of applied loads on the capacity of concrete block walls. They were used to evaluate the current provisions in the Canadian Masonry Code, CAN3-S304-M84. An attempt was made to develop original design equations based on the reduction coefficient approach. The proposed equations for plain and reinforced blockwork were shown to provide more consistent predictions of capacity than current design methods.</p> / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

<p>An experimental investigation was conducted to analyze the effectiveness of repairing and retrofitting the intersections of flanged concrete block shear walls using surface-bonded fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) laminates for seismic load applications. A total of 18 specially designed flange-web intersecting wall assemblages were tested using 5 different schemes. Tests included wall intersections reinforced with unidirectional FRP with the fibers oriented perpendicular to loading direction (90°), parallel to loading direction (0°) and bi-directional (90°/0°), (90°/0°)2 and (45°/135°) to applied load direction. The behaviour of each wall specimen is discussed with respect to its failure mode, strength and deformation characteristics. Results showed that the laminates significantly increased the shear strength of concrete block shear walls junction. In addition, the fiber orientation influenced the failure mode, strength and stiffness. Moreover, depending on the fiber orientation, a significant enhancement to the post-peak load energy absorption capacity of the web-flange intersection can occur. The improved post-peak behaviour addressed the benefits of retrofitting concrete block wall intersections for seismic load applications. The FRP-retrofitted specimens were capable of reaching between 90% to 390% increase in strength compared to the umetrofitted specimen constructed with traditional steel joint reinforcement.</p> / Thesis / Master of Engineering (MEngr)

To address the challenges associated with urban expansion and environmental changes, innovative interlocking concrete block pavement (ICBP) is being researched for usage in urban areas. The ICBP is designed to have higher durability and better long-term performance compared to traditional asphalt pavement. Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) and supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) can provide many environmental benefits. The objective of this research is to investigate the mechanical properties of concrete with recycled materials. This also involves the assessment of deflection and stresses associated with ICBP using the finite element method. Four concrete mixtures with different RCA and SCMs contents were designed and cast. The RCA replacement levels were 20% and 40%, while slag and glass pozzolan were added to improve mechanical properties. The results showed that the use of RCA had adverse impacts on workability. The 28 days compressive strength of the Control Mix was 40 MPa. The compressive strength of Mix 3 was 40.5 MPa which was the highest strength among all mixtures. It demonstrated that a 40% RCA replacement level could have a non-negative effect on mechanical properties when the SCMs are added. A three-dimensional pavement model was established using ABAQUS software. The orthogonal experimental design was used to evaluate the effects of the length/width ratio of blocks, the block thickness, the elastic modulus, and the laying pattern of blocks on the deflection and von Mises stress of all ICBP models under the vertical load. Considering the deflection of the loading area, the length/width ratio had the greatest effect, then comes with thickness, elastic modulus, and laying pattern according to the Range Analysis. The bigger block size and higher elastic modulus of blocks could provide even better performance. Overall, the herringbone laying pattern is recommended as the optimum laying pattern with minimum deflection. It also contributes to better load spreading. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Located on one of the highly active seismic fault systems in the world, the building stock in Turkey is mainly composed of reinforced concrete frames with 4-5 stories. Due to design and construction deficiencies resulting from the use of unqualified personnel and insufficient supervision, many of these buildings lack lateral stiffness, ductility and strength. For many structures, there is a need to alleviate these deficiencies by means of some rehabilitation techniques prior to earthquakes. One approach also used very widely in Turkey is to fill some of the frame bays by cast-in-place R/C panels. The procedure appears to be very practical at first glance. It also appears to be very economical as far as the production of the panels is concerned. However, the production phase is slow, dirty, destructive and disruptive to occupants. Moreover, it requires relatively skilled personnel and special equipment. Therefore, the real life experience shows that the actual cost in practice is much higher when all other hidden costs are taken into account. The aim of this experimental study is to explore the potential of using infill walls made of custom shaped and high strength concrete blocks as a simpler and more practical alternative to cast-in-place R/C panels to increase the lateral load bearing capacity of frame structures. The effectiveness of FRCM (Fiber Reinforced Cementitous Matrix) system on damaged structures is also investigated in this study.

O emprego de pavimentos permeáveis tem se tornado cada vez mais necessário como medida compensatória para amortecer as vazões de pico e atenuar os impactos gerados pelas chuvas torrenciais em áreas altamente urbanizadas. Dentre os materiais convencionalmente adotados como revestimento permeável no contexto nacional destacam-se os blocos de concreto intertravados (BCI) e o asfalto poroso. No entanto, internacionalmente, existem materiais alternativos que podem apresentar permeabilidade igual ou até mesmo superior. Sob esse prisma, convém destacar o uso dos blocos de concreto articulados (BCA), recentemente adotados nos Estados Unidos e na Coréia do Sul, cuja capacidade de infiltração vem mostrando-se bastante promissora. Diferentemente dos blocos intertravados, os BCA foram projetados para trabalhar em conjunto, já que são interconectados por meio do encaixe das articulações unidirecionais de cada peça, sobrepostas umas às outras, dispensando assim o uso de material de rejunte, o que por sua vez aumenta a permeabilidade do revestimento. Contudo, embora o desempenho hidráulico aparente ser eficaz, questiona-se se o pavimento de blocos de concreto articulados (PBCA) comporta-se de forma igualmente satisfatória em termos estruturais. Nesse sentido, visando avaliar o desempenho estrutural e hidráulico de um pavimento permeável de BCA, foi construída uma pista experimental (20 x 5 m) no Campus da USP, adotando-se dois tipos de base, uma de agregado reciclado (RCD) e outra de agregado natural (brita 1). Na análise estrutural utilizaram-se como parâmetros de avaliação as deflexões máximas obtidas via FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer), a eficiência de transferência de carga (LTE - Load Transfer Efficiency) e por fim, os módulos de resiliência retroanalisados para cada camada. Ademais, a pesquisa ainda avaliou a influência da presença de fissuras ou trincas nos blocos no desempenho estrutural do pavimento, já que acabaram tornando-se recorrentes em ambas as seções avaliadas. Já na avaliação hidráulica, monitorou-se a taxa de infiltração in situ ao longo de quase vinte meses. Complementarmente, foram realizadas ainda avaliações laboratoriais dos materiais empregados e funcionais do pavimento. A análise estrutural indicou que o sentido articulado do BCA obteve respostas estruturais nitidamente melhores que o sentido não articulado em termos de módulo de resiliência, deflexões máximas e LTE, evidenciando que de fato as articulações conferem intertravamento ao pavimento, próximo ao propiciado pela areia de rejunte no BCI. A base de RCD por apresentar uma distribuição granulométrica mais bem distribuída do que a brita 1, também obteve melhores resultados. Já a presença de trincas ou fissuras nos blocos não acarretou comprometimento no desempenho estrutural da pista experimental, devido ao baixo grau de severidade da maioria das patologias encontradas, como atestou o levantamento funcional, cuja classificação indicou um pavimento em boas condições de serventia. No que diz respeito ao desempenho hidráulico, o pavimento apresentou um desempenho adequado em termos de capacidade de infiltração. Apesar da perda progressiva estimada em 20% ao ano, as taxas de infiltração in situ mantiveram-se acima de 10-3 m/s em todos os ensaios realizados, sendo, portanto, superior à maioria dos revestimentos permeáveis tradicionalmente utilizados como os blocos intertravados e a camada porosa de atrito, conforme descritos pela literatura. / Pervious pavements have become increasingly fundamental as a compensatory measure to attenuate peak flows and to mitigate the impacts generated by torrential storm water in highly urbanized areas. Among the usual materials applied in permeable surface layers, it is possible to highlight the interlocking concrete blocks (ICB) and the porous asphalt. However, internationally, there are alternative materials that are able to present a higher permeability. In this sense, the use of articulated concrete blocks (ACB) needs to be stressed. Recently adopted in United States of America and South Korea, ACB has presented promising infiltration rates. Unlike the ICB, the ACB was designed to work as an integrated framework due to the presence of articulated joints in one of the block directions, which allows discarding the jointing sand and as result, increases water infiltration. Nevertheless, although the pavement hydraulic performance seems to be successful, there are some doubts about the structural behavior. Thereby, aiming at evaluating the hydraulic and structural performance of an unidirectionally articulated concrete block pavement, a pavement experimental section (20 x 5 meters) was constructed at the University of São Paulo Campus. Two types of different bases were applied, namely recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and natural aggregate. The structural assessment took into account the maximum deflection measurements, the load transfer efficiency (LTE) and the backcalculated elastic moduli of each layer. In addition, this work also evaluated the structural influence caused by the presence of damaged pavers, since it became a recurring problem. Regarding the hydraulic evaluation, the surface infiltration rate was monitored over twenty months after the pavement construction. Furthermore, functional and laboratorial analyses were carried out in order to check the structure serviceability level. The structural results indicated clearly that the articulated block side had better performance than the non-articulated block side in terms of elastic moduli, maximum deflections measurements and LTE, confirming the interlocking efficiency generated by the block shape, comparable to that one provided by the jointing sand in ICB. As the recycled aggregate was characterized by a more well graded particle size distribution than the natural aggregate, the RCA base also presented better structural responses. The presence of damaged blocks did not compromise the pavement structural performance, since the degree of severity was low, as verified by the functional evaluation, which showed a pavement in good conditions. Finally, concerning the hydraulic results, the pavement presented a high infiltration capacity. Even though an infiltration loss of about 20% per year has been detected, the infiltration rate remained greater than 10-3 m/s for all tests performed, being considerably higher than those found in pavements built with both interlocking concrete blocks and with porous asphalt, as reported in the literature.

O emprego de pavimentos permeáveis tem se tornado cada vez mais necessário como medida compensatória para amortecer as vazões de pico e atenuar os impactos gerados pelas chuvas torrenciais em áreas altamente urbanizadas. Dentre os materiais convencionalmente adotados como revestimento permeável no contexto nacional destacam-se os blocos de concreto intertravados (BCI) e o asfalto poroso. No entanto, internacionalmente, existem materiais alternativos que podem apresentar permeabilidade igual ou até mesmo superior. Sob esse prisma, convém destacar o uso dos blocos de concreto articulados (BCA), recentemente adotados nos Estados Unidos e na Coréia do Sul, cuja capacidade de infiltração vem mostrando-se bastante promissora. Diferentemente dos blocos intertravados, os BCA foram projetados para trabalhar em conjunto, já que são interconectados por meio do encaixe das articulações unidirecionais de cada peça, sobrepostas umas às outras, dispensando assim o uso de material de rejunte, o que por sua vez aumenta a permeabilidade do revestimento. Contudo, embora o desempenho hidráulico aparente ser eficaz, questiona-se se o pavimento de blocos de concreto articulados (PBCA) comporta-se de forma igualmente satisfatória em termos estruturais. Nesse sentido, visando avaliar o desempenho estrutural e hidráulico de um pavimento permeável de BCA, foi construída uma pista experimental (20 x 5 m) no Campus da USP, adotando-se dois tipos de base, uma de agregado reciclado (RCD) e outra de agregado natural (brita 1). Na análise estrutural utilizaram-se como parâmetros de avaliação as deflexões máximas obtidas via FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer), a eficiência de transferência de carga (LTE - Load Transfer Efficiency) e por fim, os módulos de resiliência retroanalisados para cada camada. Ademais, a pesquisa ainda avaliou a influência da presença de fissuras ou trincas nos blocos no desempenho estrutural do pavimento, já que acabaram tornando-se recorrentes em ambas as seções avaliadas. Já na avaliação hidráulica, monitorou-se a taxa de infiltração in situ ao longo de quase vinte meses. Complementarmente, foram realizadas ainda avaliações laboratoriais dos materiais empregados e funcionais do pavimento. A análise estrutural indicou que o sentido articulado do BCA obteve respostas estruturais nitidamente melhores que o sentido não articulado em termos de módulo de resiliência, deflexões máximas e LTE, evidenciando que de fato as articulações conferem intertravamento ao pavimento, próximo ao propiciado pela areia de rejunte no BCI. A base de RCD por apresentar uma distribuição granulométrica mais bem distribuída do que a brita 1, também obteve melhores resultados. Já a presença de trincas ou fissuras nos blocos não acarretou comprometimento no desempenho estrutural da pista experimental, devido ao baixo grau de severidade da maioria das patologias encontradas, como atestou o levantamento funcional, cuja classificação indicou um pavimento em boas condições de serventia. No que diz respeito ao desempenho hidráulico, o pavimento apresentou um desempenho adequado em termos de capacidade de infiltração. Apesar da perda progressiva estimada em 20% ao ano, as taxas de infiltração in situ mantiveram-se acima de 10-3 m/s em todos os ensaios realizados, sendo, portanto, superior à maioria dos revestimentos permeáveis tradicionalmente utilizados como os blocos intertravados e a camada porosa de atrito, conforme descritos pela literatura. / Pervious pavements have become increasingly fundamental as a compensatory measure to attenuate peak flows and to mitigate the impacts generated by torrential storm water in highly urbanized areas. Among the usual materials applied in permeable surface layers, it is possible to highlight the interlocking concrete blocks (ICB) and the porous asphalt. However, internationally, there are alternative materials that are able to present a higher permeability. In this sense, the use of articulated concrete blocks (ACB) needs to be stressed. Recently adopted in United States of America and South Korea, ACB has presented promising infiltration rates. Unlike the ICB, the ACB was designed to work as an integrated framework due to the presence of articulated joints in one of the block directions, which allows discarding the jointing sand and as result, increases water infiltration. Nevertheless, although the pavement hydraulic performance seems to be successful, there are some doubts about the structural behavior. Thereby, aiming at evaluating the hydraulic and structural performance of an unidirectionally articulated concrete block pavement, a pavement experimental section (20 x 5 meters) was constructed at the University of São Paulo Campus. Two types of different bases were applied, namely recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and natural aggregate. The structural assessment took into account the maximum deflection measurements, the load transfer efficiency (LTE) and the backcalculated elastic moduli of each layer. In addition, this work also evaluated the structural influence caused by the presence of damaged pavers, since it became a recurring problem. Regarding the hydraulic evaluation, the surface infiltration rate was monitored over twenty months after the pavement construction. Furthermore, functional and laboratorial analyses were carried out in order to check the structure serviceability level. The structural results indicated clearly that the articulated block side had better performance than the non-articulated block side in terms of elastic moduli, maximum deflections measurements and LTE, confirming the interlocking efficiency generated by the block shape, comparable to that one provided by the jointing sand in ICB. As the recycled aggregate was characterized by a more well graded particle size distribution than the natural aggregate, the RCA base also presented better structural responses. The presence of damaged blocks did not compromise the pavement structural performance, since the degree of severity was low, as verified by the functional evaluation, which showed a pavement in good conditions. Finally, concerning the hydraulic results, the pavement presented a high infiltration capacity. Even though an infiltration loss of about 20% per year has been detected, the infiltration rate remained greater than 10-3 m/s for all tests performed, being considerably higher than those found in pavements built with both interlocking concrete blocks and with porous asphalt, as reported in the literature.

Este trabalho estuda o comportamento estrutural de blocos sobre estacas em concreto armado situados em divisas de terrenos. Foi feita revisão bibliográfica abordando os assuntos de blocos de coroamento, vigas de equilíbrio, modelo de bielas e tirantes e um breve comentário sobre o programa computacional Diana (2010). O trabalho apresenta um roteiro para análise estrutural e dimensionamento de vigas de equilíbrio sobre estacas com pilar excêntrico ao apoio. É apresentado um exemplo feito por Andrade (1989), comparado com o método proposto por Burke (1979) e com análise numérica. Além deste, foram analisados casos de projetos reais utilizando o método Burke (1979) adaptado neste trabalho. Alguns desses exemplos foram modelados em regime elástico e linear no programa computacional Diana (2010). São apresentadas comparações de resultados obtidos com o método Burke (1979) e análise numérica, comprovando a eficácia desse método. Em todos os exemplos estudados o método proposto por Burke (1979) indicou bons resultados quando comparados com os encontrados em análise computacional. A dissertação apresenta soluções para projetos de bloco sobre estacas, situados em divisas de terrenos e associados a vigas de equilíbrio. / This research investigates the structural behavior of reinforced concrete blocks piles located on the limit of land. Literature review was done about blocks piles, balance beams, strut and tie model and a short comment about the Diana computer program (2010). The dissertation presents a roadmap for structural analysis and sizing of balance beams on stakes with eccentric support pillar. An example, which was studied by Andrade (1989), is compared with the same example done using the method proposed by Burke (1979) and with numerical analysis. In addition to this, are analyzed real cases of projects using the method of Burke (1979). Some of these examples were modeled in linear and elastic characteristics using Diana program computer (2010). Here, it is presented comparisons between the method proposed by Burke (1979) and numerical analysis. It is presented comparisons between the method Burke (1979) and numerical analysis, proving the effectiveness of this method. In all examples studied the method proposed by Burke (1979) provided with good accuracy the results for computer analysis. The conclusion presents suggestions for projects of block piles located in limit of land associated with balance beams.

A previously completed study in the field of concrete block construction by Ahmed and Feldman (2012) indicated that, on average, the reinforcing bars in non-contact lap splices, where the lapped bars are located in adjacent cells, only develop 71% of the tensile resistance of spliced bars which are in contact. An experimental program was therefore initiated to design and evaluate remedial measures which can potentially increase the tensile resistance of non-contact lap splices to that of contact lap splice of the same lap length. Implementation of the proposed measures in various field situations was also analyzed. Six unique remedial splice details, along with standard contact and unaltered non-contact lap splices were evaluated and compared. The mitigative details included providing additional confinement, installing knock-out webs, placing splice reinforcement between the lapped bars, and combinations of these aforementioned details. Three replicates of each splice detail were constructed for a total of 24 wall splice specimens. Each wall splice specimen was reinforced with No. 15 Grade 400 deformed steel reinforcing bars with 200 mm lap splice lengths at located the midspan. The specimens were tested in a horizontal position under a monotonic, four-point loading geometry. Load and deflection data were collected throughout testing and were subsequently used in an iterative moment-curvature analysis to calculate the maximum tensile resistance of the spliced reinforcement. This was then used to compare the structural performance of each remedial splice detail to the standard contact and non-contact lap splices. The wall splice specimens which contained non-contact lap splices with knock-out webs, s-shaped, and transverse reinforcement in the splice region achieved similar tensile capacities as the wall splice specimens with standard contact lap splices. Industry professionals have indicated that the installation of the remedial measures evaluated in this study would not affect the constructability of masonry assemblages in field situations. The splice detail with knock-out webs confined within the lap splice length was determined to be the most viable procedure as it can be installed to increase the resistance of non-contact lap splices in almost all construction situations. This remedial procedure was able to improve the tensile resistance of the lapped reinforcement by 63% compared to the wall splice specimens with standard non-contact lap splices.