African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are one of the most endangered carnivores in southern Africa. Direct persecution, prey decline and habitat loss and fragmentation all contributed to a rapid decline in this species’ population size and distribution during the 20th century. Following a thorough population viability analysis in the late 1990s the decision was taken to manage the South African population as a metapopulation. This involved the reintroduction of packs to small, fenced protected areas and the subsequent transfer of individuals or small groups between reserves to avoid inbreeding. A key component of successful metapopulation management is post-release monitoring to provide data on the determinants of reintroduction success and failure, particularly when establishing new populations. This study aimed to provide information on the post-release behaviour and movements of a pack of eight African wild dogs introduced to the Northern Tuli Game Reserve in eastern Botswana in February 2017. Two individuals from the introduced pack were fitted with GPS collars. A total of 933 GPS locations were recorded between February 2017 and October 2017. Movement data was used to analyse home range, habitat resistance and resource utilisation by this pack across a range of spatial and temporal scales. Monthly 95% kernel density estimations revealed a mean home range of 330.02 km2 . A reduction in home range size to 37% of the average monthly 95% kernel density estimations revealed that the pack commenced denning in May 2017. However, this denning attempt failed, as shown by the home range size increasing only a month after it initially contracted, which is less than the expected contraction period required to produce a successful litter. Habitat resistance analysis revealed that the pack readily crossed fences but not rivers, with the Limpopo river serving as a very hard barrier that consistently deflected pack movement parallel to its course. Resource utilisation functions showed a preference for sites far from riverine areas, with low elevation and rough and rocky terrain. I propose that this may reflect a predator avoidance pattern, with lions (Panthera leo) in particular preferring riverine habitat with a less rough terrain in this area. The persistence of this pack in the landscape nine months post-release indicates that this reintroduction has been a partial success. Large perennial rivers provide important barriers to the movement of this pack and may thus be important for mitigating local human-wild dog conflict. Fences, however, were readily traversed and therefore communities outside of fenced areas are likely to experience conflict with this pack and any future packs re-introduced to this area.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential costs and benefits of increasing conservation in the Sabaki River Mouth Important Bird Area. This was achieved by assessing the vulnerability of waterbirds to disturbance from human activity in the estuary, the current use and importance of the area to local livelihoods, and the value (current and potential) of tourism. Waterbird densities and levels of human activity were quantified from 20 September to 25 November 2010 in the intertidal area of the Sabaki River Mouth Important Bird Area on the central Kenyan coast. Household surveys were conducted in the adjacent Sabaki Village from 15 October to 24 November 2010 (N = 190). The current and potential value of ecotourism was investigated by recording visitation rates and interviewing visitors to ascertain their preferences and willingness to pay an entry fee from 5 October to 4 November 2010. Three types of response variables were collected at six sites to characterize relative responses of waterbirds to simulated human disturbances. These were 1) changes in bird density within a 40 m radius of a stationary disturbance (D40); 2) minimum distance of birds from the source of a stationary disturbance (¡Ü 40 m); and 3) the time for 90% of original bird abundance to recover following a mobile human disturbance which caused all birds to flee the immediate vicinity. Disturbance response metrics were estimated from these variables by calculating normalized mean residuals from regressions of density (D40) and minimum approach distance against expected densities measured in the absence of disturbance, for 14 waterbird species.

In this thesis I determine the effect of population decline on reproduction for two critically endangered African cedars. Widdringtonia whytei (Mulanje cedar) endemic to Mt Mulanje, in Malawi and Widdringtonia cedarbergensis (Clanwilliam cedar) endemic to the Cedarberg Mountains in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. Populations of both species have declined dramatically in the recent past and both show evidence of insufficient recruitment. Recent research has shown that a reduction in population density may limit pollen dispersal, reduce seed viability and increase self-pollination rates, causing an inbreeding depression, resulting in less fit offspring. Based on this research, I hypothesise that pollen transfer in Widdringtonia is distance-dependant and therefore populations with greater distances to the nearest adult neighbour will have lower seed viability, due to pollination failure. I also hypothesise, that trees which receive less outcross pollen due to distance-dependant pollination will have higher rates of self-pollination. I further hypothesise that seed viability may also increase with increased soil nutrients and more amenable climate differences linked to changes in altitude. To test these hypotheses, I determine the extent to which reduced population density has resulted in a decline in viable seed using germination experiments, followed by cut tests and tetrazolium chloride tests. For W. cedarbergensis seedling survival was determined in a greenhouse and self-pollination was assessed with ISSR markers, using DNA extracted from parent and offspring. My results show that seed viability for both W. cedarbergensis and W. whytei is not significantly correlated with distance to nearest-neighbour, altitude or soil nitrogen, carbon or phosphorus. These results suggest that current population densities are not effecting the reproduction either of W. whytei or W. cedarbergensis. My results for population genetics show relatively low levels of genetic variation in W. cedarbergensis typical of endangered and endemic species. The genetic differentiation between populations is low, suggesting that pollen flow between populations is adequate and populations are not genetically isolated. I conclude that there is no evidence that population decline is causing any noticeable limitations on pollen transfer and reproduction in Widdringtonia.

Freshwater biodiversity is highly threatened, but under-represented in media, and less well known than marine and terrestrial counterparts. The current lack of public awareness of freshwater species and ecosystems may limit freshwater conservation as a popular cause. The manner in which species are portrayed in the popular media can influence awareness and support for conservation. In this digital age, images in particular may play a major role in public support for conservation. In this study, I examined images sourced from the web of ten native South African freshwater fish species and images of a general search for ‘freshwater fish South Africa' to investigate the kinds of images people are exposed to. Results show that only 28% of speciesspecific images showed the fish in a water habitat, with the remaining images showing the fish out of water, often with the presence of humans. I then conducted an online survey of people's perceptions of freshwater fish images. Respondents were shown images of native South African fish in water and out of water. From this survey, 73% of respondents stated they would choose images of fish in water in their natural habitat to communicate the importance of conserving freshwater ecosystems and freshwater fish. Over 95% of respondents, agreed that images play an important role in rallying support for nature conservation in general. When shown images of fish in water, 57% of respondents stated the in-water images evoked a desire to know more about freshwater environments and 49% stated a desire to know more about freshwater fish. The survey also investigated respondent willingness to donate money and time to freshwater conservation and explored whether showing either ‘in-water' or ‘out of water' images beforehand influenced this response. The results suggested that the type of images presented beforehand had little to no effect on willingness to donate, but other factors such as gender, natural sciences background, and history of visiting freshwater environments influenced respondent willingness to donate time and money. Overall this study suggests that future considerations should be given to how freshwater fish species are portrayed in science communication and environmental education through imagery.

Vultures are crucial scavengers, removing carcasses, and maintaining the healthy and clean environments. However, their populations are rapidly declining. Six of eight Kenyan vulture species are currently listed as ‘Endangered' or ‘Critically Endangered' on the IUCN Red List. Poisoning caused by human-wildlife conflicts is a major threat to vultures after belief-based use of their body parts. A total of 1387 interviews were administered within Maasai Mara pastoral community. We used the ‘Unmatched Count Technique' to estimate the prevalence and distribution of poison use, and direct questions to characterize poison types, usage and sources, as well as belief-based use of vulture body parts. We found that 54% of respondents reported Carbofuran poison, whereas nearly half (48%) of respondents pointed to agrovets as a major source of all poisons and popularly (84%) smeared on carcasses. The vast majority (75%) particularly use vulture feathers for arrows. Further, 22% fence off their livestock against predatory wildlife. We further explored how predation protection measures used predict individual poisoning likelihoods. None of the five main predation protection measures significantly influences poison use. Both fencing and the use of lights as predator control measures attenuate the poisoning risk. However, herding indicated weak signals for poison use amongst pastoralists. We proposed that an effective vulture poisoning risk reduction should be multi-faceted and collaborative. Regulating and monitoring of the import, local trading and use of poisonous substances. Building partnerships and engagements for more support for local livelihoods. Lastly, upscaling fencing and expanding the communal conservancies. These strategies would curb retaliatory human-wildlife conflicts and poison use against wildlife and vultures in Southern Kenya.

There is increasing understanding of the role that both ecological and built infrastructure can have in economic growth and development in terms of water supply. However, degradation of ecological infrastructure (EI) is resulting in the loss of valuable ecosystem services that benefit human well-being. Invasive alien plants (IAPs) are degrading catchment areas which negatively impacts delivery of hydrological ecosystem services. Clearing IAPs is considered a catchment conservation intervention that preserves these services. This study used South Africa as a case study to analyse the viability of investing in EI by way of IAP clearing compared to built infrastructure augmentation interventions to secure water supply in the long term. Unit reference values (URVs) were used to compare costeffectiveness between ecological and built interventions for 11 of South Africa's regional water supply systems (WSSs). Built infrastructure URVs were available from government reports, while URVs for EI were calculated by modelling spread of IAPs, calculating the cost to clear them between 2022 and 2050 and the potential amount of water saved in their absence. The results provide quantitative evidence of the cost-effectiveness of investing in EI against built infrastructure options to secure water supply. The potential water to be gained by clearing IAPs from catchment areas of existing bulk water infrastructure was approximately 40% of what would be gained by implementing all built infrastructure interventions by 2050. It is recommended that IAP clearing be pushed ahead of built infrastructure interventions to delay costs associated with further built infrastructure development. Governing institutions, economists and natural resource managers are therefore encouraged to coordinate efforts towards designing EI investment frameworks as a sustainable, resilient approach to securing water supply.

The Cape parrot is the only endemic parrot of South Africa and is currently nationally threatened. One of the biggest threats to the Cape parrot is the past and present degradation of indigenous forest. The Amathole Mistbelt Forest in the Eastern Cape is the primary habitat for Cape parrot and has historically been heavily degraded. In order to conserve the Cape parrot effectively, there is a need to understand the spatial distribution of indigenous forest patches and their quality. There is currently not a sufficiently accurate landcover map available to fulfil this need. Thus, this study uses remotely sensed imagery at a 10 m resolution and random forest classification to (1) produce a land cover map of the indigenous forest in the Amathole region; (2) determine habitat quality of the indigenous forest, and (3) determine whether forest loss, as reported by Global Forest Watch (GFW), reflects the loss of indigenous forest or the clearing of plantations and woody alien invasives. The overall accuracy of the classification was very high at 82%. Cross validated accuracies were all high ranging from 95 – 100%, with water having the highest accuracy and indigenous forest, eucalyptus spp., pine spp., and infrastructure having the lowest accuracies. F1 scores ranged from 0.78 – 1.0, with indigenous forest ranking the second lowest at 0.80 and grassland ranking the second highest at 0.91. Indigenous forest covered 26% of the study area. Black wattle, pine spp. and eucalyptus spp. covered a combined 35% of the study area. The detailed map of indigenous forest shows the extent of its fragmentation and outlines some of the management implications associated with small forest patches. Secondly, habitat quality for Cape parrot is questioned as there is a lack of emergent canopy tree species and 30% of the matrix between forest patches is invaded by invasive alien species. Thus, it is suggested that a strong focus is put into clearing and managing invasive alien species. Lastly, GFW ‘forest cover loss' is shown to be comprised primarily of plantation felling and invasive clearing. It is suggested that there has been little loss of indigenous forest in the last 30 years. Further research will include creating an open and accessible product in the form of a Google Earth Engine App to share with conservation managers in the area.

(1) The distribution and habitat preferences of wild ungulates and cattle were determined from observations and counts in Lochinvar National Park and the Game Management Area (GMA) on the west em part of the park on the Kafue river floodplain of Zambia over five months. Oribi, zebra and lechwe were the most widely distributed wild ungulates using habitat patches inside and outside the park. Although the distribution of buffalo was restricted within the park, the species was found in all the habitat types unlike lechwe and zebra that preferred only the floodplain and termitaria areas. Wildebeest preferred the termitaria and floodplain areas inside the park. The highest lechwe density was in Chunga floodplain with a density of 504.2/km2 followed by Mulindi GMA with 451.9/km2. The lowest lechwe density was in Mulindl termitaria with 0.4/km2. Zebra density was highest in Nampongwe floodplain with 118/km2 while the highest wildebeest density was on Gwisho dambo with 27/km2. Nampongwe floodplain had the highest oribi density with 2.8/km2. There were significant differences in the density of lechwe inside and outside the park in Mulindi. Zebra and oribi densities inside and outside the park in Mulindi were low and no differences could be noted. (2) The biomass production in the different habitats was determined by harvesting the above ground biomass in selected areas in each habitat. The termitaria were the most productive of the three habitat types with an estimated production of 4320kg/ha followed by the woodland with 3200kg/ha and the least production was in the floodplain with 2850kg/ha. Of this total, grasses made up 87.4%, 83. 7% and 72.5% of the production in the floodplain, termitaria and woodland respectively. There were no significant differences in biomass production between different habitat types, however, there were significant differences in biomass production within the same habitat. (3) The species composition of the dominant plants was different in all habitat types. and as a result, the forage availability in the different habitats also differed. The floodplain was dominated by Echinoehloa spp, Panicum repens and Oryza longistaminata whereas the termitaria was dominated by Hyparrhenia rufa, Setaria spp and Echinochloa colonum. The woodland was dominated by Setaria and Digitaria spp. (4) Cover was determined in the different habitat types using the Parker Step Point method. The highest amount of grass cover was in the floodplain with 46.6% followed by termitaria with 45.6% and the woodland with 13.3%. Non grass cover was highest in the termitaria with 15.8°, followed by floodplain with 9.4% and woodland with 0.5%. The woodland had the highest amount of litter with 66.5% followed by the floodplain with 30.7%. The termitaria had the least amount of litter with 24.9%. The highest amount of bare ground was in the woodland with 19.8% followed by termitaria with 13.8% and the floodplain with 13.3%. There were significant differences in the proportion of grass and non-grass cover in all habitat types. There were no significant differences in the proportion of litter and bare ground between the floodplain and tennitaria and between floodplain and woodland however, there were significant differences in the proportion of litter and bare ground between the tennitaria and woodland. (5) A questionnaire survey revealed that game meat and grazing land are the two main resources that are used by people near the park. The main problems faced by people living near the park is destruction of crops by problem animals like baboons and bushpigs and the transmission of diseases like tuberculosis from game to livestock. The survey also revealed that people are forced to travel inside the park because it is the shortest route to various destinations. Others travel inside the park because the main sources of employment in the area are found inside the park. Game seems to be used to the presence of people and will only run away when closely approached or when people are travelling using a vehicle. (6) The results of the study do not support the hypothesis that cattle can be accommodated in Lochinvar National Park with no adverse effect on lechwe and other large herbivores. Cattle and game use the same areas outside the park in Mulindi but the areas are used at different times in the year. (7) Lochinvar National Park needs a clear burning policy to effectively manage the bush encroachment problem and overgrazing in some areas inside the park. The income generated by the park should be ploughed back into the management of the park in order to effectively control poaching, human encroachment into the park and to monitor the activities and movements of people inside the park.

Ant and plant assemblages in patches of Pinus species trees in mountain fynbos and renosterbos (Elytropappus rhinocerotis) shru.bland were investigated in order to detennine whether there were differences in ant and plant species richness, abundance and cover between patches of pines and the surrounding indigenous vegetation. The study was carried out in the Matjiesrivier valley on the southern slopes of the Swartrg mountains in the Oudtshoom district, South Africa. Ants were collected at three sites: one in an older (c. 70 years) pine patch in mesic mountain fynbos at about midslope and two in younger (c. 10 years) pine patches in closed and open remnant renosterbos shrublands respectively on lower slopes. On a per site basis, there were no major differences in ant and plant species richness between the pine and no-pine sites in renosterbos, or (with the exception of plants) the pine and no-pine site in mesic mountain fynbos. A total of 2 539 ants belonging to 37 species, distributed among 15 genera, were collected during the study. Camponotus was most species-rich genus (13 species), followed by Monomorium (7 species), Tetramorium (4 species) and Lepisiota (2 species), with 11 of the 15 genera each represented by a single species. No non-indigenous species were observed during the duration of the study. Camponotus sp.11, Lepisiota sp.1 and Tetramorium quadrispinosum were observed only in the open renosterbos site. Camponotus klugii, Camponotus sp. l, Camponotus sp. 6, Cerapachys sp. l, Meranoplus peringueyi, Monomorium fri.dae, Monomoriu1'Jl sp.3 and Technomyrmex albipes were observed only in the closed renosterbos. Camponotus bayneii, Camponotus sp.5, 7, 8 and 9, Crematogaster peringueyi, Pachycondyla pumicoca, Solenopsis punctaticeps and Tetramorium regulare were recorded only in mesic mountain fynbos The most abundant ant guild was the non-dominant generalist (17 species), particularly Pheidole sp. 1# (48 % of all individual ants) followed by nectar feeders (15 species), dominant generalists (2 species), specialist predators (2 species) and a seed harvester (1 species). In general, the non-dominant generalists preferred no-pine sites to sites invaded by pines. There was very little undergrowth under the pines in mesic mountain fynbos, and Clutia polygonoides, Cymbopogon sp. 1, Erica sp. 1, Metalasia cephalotes, Metalasia muricata, Pelagronium betulinum sp. 1 and Restio sp. 1 were significantly more frequent outside the patch. The two renosterbos sites showed no significant difference in Elytropappus rhinoceroti's cover in and out of pine patches, and only two species at the open rerttsterbos site, Dodonea sp. 1 and Re/hania squarrosa, were more abundant under pines than in the surrounding renosterbos. The most abundant plant life form was the ericoids (37 species) followed by proteiods (11 species), grasses (11 species), forbs (9 species) and succulents (4 species). In general, the five life forms did not show -any exclusive pattern of preference for either the pine or no-pine sites.

As global biodiversity decreases, the importance of protected areas for protecting biodiversity and ecosystem complexity, is rising. Increasing development and land use change means that protected areas must restrict species to their boundaries to avoid human-wildlife conflict. Populations of species therefore no longer disperse, and overpopulation can occur. In southern African savanna systems, large populations of savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) are transforming woodland and reducing vegetation diversity. While historically large, the elephant population in Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe has grown at >5% annually since 1992, and densities currently exceed 2 elephants km-2 . Over the last 70 years, riverine woodland vegetation has undergone substantial changes. While initially it might be compelling to hold elephants responsible, Gonarezhou National Park has a complex natural and socio-ecological history to consider. Before proclamation in 1974, areas supporting woody riverine vegetation along Gonarezhou National Park's biggest river, the Runde, were widely cultivated. Some riverine vegetation was also cleared in the late 1950s to prevent the spread of tsetse fly (a vector for African Sleeping Sickness). This study makes use of aerial photography and satellite imagery of the Runde River, and its confluence with the Save River, covering the period 1948 to 2018. Using supervised classification techniques, imagery was analysed to identify vegetation types and provide an estimation of riverine woodland cover. Further analyses were conducted to assess characteristics and possible drivers of change. Percentage cover of woody riverine vegetation along the Runde River, covering a total area of 60.2 km2 , varied greatly over time, rising initially from 14% cover in 1948 to 40% cover in 2005 with cessation of cultivation and clearing for tsetse fly after the park was proclaimed. It then decreased by 20% between 2005 and 2018 most likely due to high populations of elephants and severe droughts. Confirmation that elephants have caused a decrease in woody cover of riverine woodland within Gonarezhou National Park was gained from comparing a plot inside the park boundary with an equivalent plot outside the park boundary that has supported a lower density of elephants. Woodland cover in these plots showed a significant reduction inside the park boundary suggesting elephants have driven this decline. The area of riverine woodland which was previously cultivated (3.3 km2 along the Runde River) supported between 1% and 12% less riverine woodland cover than areas which were not cultivated for each year of assessment, but the differences were not significant. The area of riverine woodland cleared for tsetse fly control (0.4 km2 along the Runde River) in the late 1950s supported between 8% and 25% less riverine woodland cover than uncleared areas in each year. Although some recovery is evident, there is a significant long-term influence of tsetse clearing on riverine woodland vegetation cover in Gonarezhou National Park. Elephant impacts are expected to decline with distance from permanent water. However, examination of changes in woody cover along a seasonal river, offering a potential refugium, yielded variable results. By 2018 a decrease in woodland cover adjacent to the permanent water source of the Runde River was apparent, suggesting that riverine woody vegetation near permanent water is most affected by elephant damage. A hypothesis that elephant impact on woodlands is lessened where there is a concentration of alternative food sources, especially hygrophilous grassland and Faidherbia albida pods, was examined. Woody cover along the Runde at its junction with the Save, which has substantial alternative forage, was compared to upstream areas without such alternatives. In 2018 a decrease in woody cover is shown with distance from alternative food sources, suggesting elephants use woodland more intensively when alternative forage is unavailable. The probable influence of drought and flooding events on reducing alternative forage and woody cover, requires further consideration. Woody cover is a crude index of change as it does not account for structure or composition of woodland below the canopy. As a result, if a significant change is detected, we can be quite confident that the change has occurred. However, if there is no significant change, this does not necessarily mean that changes have not taken place, they simply may not be detected by such a crude measure. Analysis of woodland cover serves as a starting point. Time and resource limitations meant that structure and composition could not be considered in this study. However, such measures would increase the accuracy of analysis in future studies. Overall, this study demonstrates the importance of considering all possible influences on vegetation change. Strong evidence was provided that elephants impact upon woody vegetation change over time. However, the longer-term influences of cultivation and tsetse clearing and, availability of refugia and alternative forage cannot be disregarded. An assiduous approach is required lest we falsely attribute blame to elephants alone, the management consequences of which are profound.