Thesis--Belgrad, 1964. / Added t.p.: Metallurgy of the eneolithic period in Yugoslavia. Summary in English. Bibliography: p. 71-80.

Many divergent opinions have been expressed concerning the possible priority of the use of copper or iron in the early history of mankind. Too often have archaeologists based their. conclusion solely upon the relative abundance of these meta;ts, which have since been found in ancient ruins, especially in graves and tombs. It is true that among such remains copper has usually proven to be the more predominant metal. This need not, however, be too readily regarded as an indication of its earlier use by mankind, as some writers have been prone to conclude. The higher corrodibility of iron as compared with copper, and particularly with its alloys, would tend to destroy evidences of that metal within a relatively short time. Furthermore, it must be remembered that it was the custom of early peoples to place in the graves of their kindred, articles of intrinsic value, and this practice could tend to account for the absence of iron in such ruins. Excavations of the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland have revealed intermingled remnants of both stone and bronze implements. It has been found however, that the latter are of such perfection as to be attributable only to a later civilization, and thus they were probably introduced at a subsequent date. Moreover, from the standpoint of economic geology and metallurgy it would seem that the use of either iron or copper would depend largely upon the nature and accessibility of the particular deposits, as well as upon the cultural background of the people. Ordinarily, iron can be more readily reduced and worked than copper, while the reduction of bronze requires considerably more skill, and tin, an essential constituent of the alloy, has never been an abundant metal. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

The study considers archaeological evidence for burials and other mortuary practices from the Late Chalcolithic period in north-east Bulgaria. The Late Chalcolithic is defined (circa 4500-4000 B.C.) and around 900 burials are attributed to two cultural groups within the region in this period. It is argued that previous studies of the evidence can be rejected for assuming a straightforward equivalence between burial forms and social structures. An alternative model of social organization is proposed based on the 'structuration' and 'habitus' models of Giddens and Bourdieu which emphasize the role of the individual in the reproduction of social institutions. This framework is used to examine the importance of (mortuary) rituals and the symbolic use of material culture in strategies intended to maintain or alter the distribution of power and resources. The data is examined using quantitative measures of spatial and temporal variability and statistical measures of association between variables. It is argued that two basic patterns can be discerned and which correspond to the defined cultures. The inland cultural pattern is further divided into two 'types' based on the location and forms of burials. Burial forms and grave goods are also examined qualitatively and the values attributed to artefacts, materials and the processes of burial are addressed. From this it is argued that meanings are fundamentally mediated through processes of reciprocation between kinship groups and with ancestors. Social structures based on gender and age, the settlement community and residence are proposed. 'Codes' of the use of material culture within mortuary rituals are described and evaluated through a consideration of assemblages and performance. Changes within and between cemeteries over time are used to reconstruct patterns of competition and emulation. The interpretations of social interaction in burial practices are related to other forms of evidence from the Late Chalcolithic in north-east Bulgaria and suggestions made for a new understanding of social organization in both cultures. The conclusions are placed in a wider spatial and temporal perspective and conclusions presented relating to both the data studied and the theoretical models adopted.

This is a regional synthesis, which draws together a wide range of data concerning the Neolithic and Copper Age in the Abruzzo-Marche region (c. 5750-2050 Cal. BC), and examines it in the light of contemporary archaeological methods and theories and current topics of debate within Mediterranean prehistory. In Chapter 1 a new chronological framework is established, using radiocarbon, stratigraphic and typological dating methods. Five main chronological phases are defined, namely the early, middle and late Neolithic, the final Neolithic/early Copper Age, and the middle-late Copper Age. Chapter 2 provides a generalized reconstruction of the Neothermal environment, and changes in it, based upon present-day and prehistoric data from central Italy. An increasingly unstable ecological situation may have developed on the coastal lowlands during the Copper Age. In Chapter 3 changing patterns of settlement and subsistence are examined within four major geographical zones. These patterns remain similar to those previously identified by Barker, although new details and interpretations are provided, concerning, for example, colonization, settlement infilling and cattle breeding. Chapter 4 examines changes in the nature, scale and direction of networks of communication and exchange. The emergence of certain sites as regional nodes of production, consumption and exchange is charted, and developments in long-distance ceremonial gift-exchange and alliance systems are also proposed. Chapter 5 considers mortuary practices, which were performed in residential sites, caves and special-purpose burial sites. Neolithic rites may have expressed concern over group unity, structural divisions in society and the threats of death and economic misfortune, whereas Copper Age transformations might be understood in terms of growing social advertisement. In Chapter 6 these different themes are drawn together, along with a greater emphasis upon social factors and intra-regional variation. The development of certain sites as social and economic centres is, in particular, given further consideration. Suggestions for future research are made throughout the thesis, with reference to limitations in the existing body of data.

Although the copper axes with central shaft-hole from south-eastern Europe have a long history of research, they have not been studied on a transnational basis since the 1960s. What has also been missing is an integrated or holistic approach, trying to use as many methods as possible and better understand the production, use and context of these enigmatic objects. This present research therefore approaches the axes from different angles. A database was compiled in order to find answers on questions such as the patterns of distribution, context, fragmentation and deformation of axes. For the distribution of axes in general as well as different attributes like fragmentation and typology, the content of the database was imported into GIS software and analysed. Aspects of production were considered through experimental archaeology, metallographic analysis and a re-discovered axe blank with missing shafthole. Especially the missing moulds make it difficult to fully understand the production sequence. The typology was re-evaluated and modified to ensure comparability across modern national boundaries. The context and background was developed through a thorough review of the literature and combined with theoretical considerations. The integration of all these approaches yielded some interesting results. The great variability in shape combined with the results of metallographic analyses clearly shows that a variety of production techniques were used, but it is as yet difficult to relate these to specific geographic areas or even cultural groups. In fact the typology as well as the practice of marking the axes indicate that traditional archaeological ‘cultures’ rarely correspond to the distribution of a type or to the practice of marking the axes. They show instead that there were different spheres of influence, some even more localised and others much larger (like the Carpathian Basin) than specific ceramic traditions. These different levels of belonging, as well as the increasing visibility of the individual in the archaeological record, show that it was a period of complex cultural patterns and interactions. The axes were a part of these networks of the daily life on many different levels from the strict utilitarian to the ritualised placement in burial contexts.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2007. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 301-344). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.

Based on the author's thesis (Ph. D.)--Dept. of Classical Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Sydney, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references and index.

Thesis--Frankfurt am Main. / A part of the author's larger work with title Äxte und Beile in Österreich, which will be published in its entirety as Abt. IX, 9 of Prähistorische Bronzefunde. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Yes / Bell Beaker pottery spread across western and central Europe beginning around 2750 BCE before disappearing between 2200-1800 BCE. The mechanism of its expansion is a topic of long-standing debate, with support for both cultural diffusion and human migration. We present new genome-wide ancient DNA data from 170 Neolithic, Copper Age and Bronze Age Europeans, including 100 Beaker-associated individuals. In contrast to the Corded Ware Complex, which has previously been identified as arriving in central Europe following migration from the east, we observe limited genetic affinity between Iberian and central European Beaker Complex-associated individuals, and thus exclude migration as a significant mechanism of spread between these two regions. However, human migration did have an important role in the further dissemination of the Beaker Complex, which we document most clearly in Britain using data from 80 newly reported individuals dating to 3900-1200 BCE. British Neolithic farmers were genetically similar to contemporary populations in continental Europe and in particular to Neolithic Iberians, suggesting that a portion of the farmer ancestry in Britain came from the Mediterranean rather than the Danubian route of farming expansion. Beginning with the Beaker period, and continuing through the Bronze Age, all British individuals harboured high proportions of Steppe ancestry and were genetically closely related to Beaker-associated individuals from the Lower Rhine area. We use these observations to show that the spread of the Beaker Complex to Britain was mediated by migration from the continent that replaced >90% of Britain's Neolithic gene pool within a few hundred years, continuing the process that brought Steppe ancestry into central and northern Europe 400 years earlier.

This thesis considers the early copper and copper-alloy metallurgy of the entire Circum-Alpine region. It introduces a new approach to the interpretation of chemical composition data sets, which has been applied to a comprehensive regional database for the first time. An extensive use of GIS has been applied to investigate the role of topography in the distribution of metal and to undertake spatial and geostastical analysis that may highlight patterns of distribution of some specific key compositional element. The Circum-Alpine Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age show some distinctively different patterns of metal use, which can be interpreted through changes in mining and social choices. But there are also some signs of continuity, in particular those which respect the use of major landscape features such as watersheds and river systems. Interestingly, the Alpine range does not act as a north-south barrier, as major differences in composition tend to appear on an east-west axis. Conversely, the river system seems to have a key role in the movement of metal. Geostastical analyses demonstrate the presence of a remelting process, applicable also in the case of ingots; evidence that opens new and interesting questions about the role of ingots and hoards in the distribution of metal at the beginning of the Metal Age. New tools and new analysis may also be useful to identify zones where there was a primary metal production and zones where metal was mostly received and heavily manipulated.