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This experimental research study investigated how effectively a Master's level course on social and cultural issues in counselling influenced students' levels of ethnic awareness, sex role behaviours and behavioural intentions, and attitudes toward women. Professional psychological and counselling associations have strongly advocated that counsellor education programs incorporate courses focusing on social and cultural issues into their curricula. The study was based on the following general research question. It is hypothesized that a positive relationship exists between (on the one hand) counselling students' participation in a training course on social and cultural issues in counselling and (on the other hand) their levels of ethnic awareness, non-sexist attitudes toward women, and non-traditional sex role behaviours and behavioural intentions. The impact of the course was assessed through the use of the Wayne Ethnic Awareness Measure, the Robinson Behavioral Inventory, and the Therapists' Attitudes Toward Women Scale. These instruments were administered in a pre- and post-test format to 16 students who were enrolled in the experimental course and 15 students who were enrolled in a comparable level course on counselling theories and interventions. Six months after the post-test, brief follow-up interviews were conducted with seven volunteers from the experimental group. Statistical analyses of the data indicated that there were no significant differences in levels of cultural awareness, sex role behaviours or behavioural intentions, or attitudes toward women, between the experimental and the comparison groups at the time of the post-test. The results also revealed that, overall, participants had relatively low levels of cultural awareness and relatively high levels of feminist consciousness based on previously reported results for the instruments used. These findings imply that the experimental course should be modified to more effectively address its training objectives, particularly as they pertain to cross-cultural issues. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the usefulness of the Interpersonal Process Recall training program in developing counseling skills with U.S. Army squad leaders. A secondary purpose was to examine applicability of Interpersonal Process Recall training with subjects having little or no prior counseling skills training.A review of paraprofessional and nonprofessional literature indicated the effectiveness of lay persons, in various mental health settings. The use of videotape technology has indicated several advantages for its use in training programs; however no significant differences were reported between audio and video techniques on trainee response criteria. The increased use of simulation methods in counselor training programs was reported from the literature. Related theoretical positions were discussed including the concepts of Rogers, Bruner, Bandura, and Kagan. Research relative to the efficacy of the IPR method indicated its validity as a training model for a variety of populations.The study was conducted at the Twelfth Engineer Battalion, United States Army, at Dexheim, Germany. The Population consisted of forty squad leaders and was randomly divided into treatment and control groups. A posttest-only control group design was used in this study. The treatment consisted of 21 hours of IPR training extended over a three-week period of time. At the conclusion of the training each subject in the treatment and control groups conducted a 45 minute taped interview with a volunteer client followed by the client completing a Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory. The tapes were rated by three doctoral students who achieved high levels of interrater reliability on the Counselor Verbal Response Scale.The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventories were then scored in order to determine the clients' perception of the quality of the counseling relationship that had been established. The means of the client scores were analyzed by using a one-way ANOVA test for significant difference. No significance was found when the means of the treatment and control groups were compared. The audio tapes were rated on the four dichotomized dimensions of the Counselor Verbal Response Scale (CVRS) by using a seven minute segment from the middle of each audio tape. The means of the raters judging the treatment and control groups were treated by using the one-way analysis of variance. Significance at the .05 level was found on the affective verbal response dimension. No significance was found on exploratory, listening, or honest labeling dimensions.Eight of the nine hypotheses failed to show a significant difference between treatment and control groups relative to the subjects' levels of regard, empathic understanding, congruence, and unconditionality, on the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory; and the subjects' exploratory, listening, and honest labeling responses on the Counselor Verbal Response Scale. Conclusions based on the findings indicated that hypothesis eight relative to subjects' affective responses was the only hypothesis to show significance. Caution should be applied in the interpretation of this finding since further analysis of the data for the affective dimension indicated that one treatment group score made the difference that resulted in significance. The lack of significance for the hypotheses presented little evidence from this study to support the use of IPR training with this population. Subjective questionnaires from the treatment subjects indicated positive reactions toward the IPR training experience. The subjects' supervisors and subordinates were asked to report their observations of the subjects' interpersonal behavior for the five week period following the training. Results indicated approximately an equal number of positive and negative observations which showed little or no observable change in the subjects.The results of the study pointed out the need for further research relative to the usefulness of IPR training with specific military populations. The limitations of the study included: (1) the population studied was specific in its characteristics which limited generalization of the results; (2) there was an absence of comparable research with this population; (3) the instructors had limited experience conducting IPR training sessions prior to the study; (4) the training period of 21 hours was too brief especially within a military setting where military priorities resulted in subject absenteeism; (5) the small N of 16 used in the study restricted the generalization of results; and (6) the lack of random assignment of volunteer clients could have contributed to the results on the dependent measures. Future research of this nature should consider comparing other training programs with the IPR model.3

This study sought to determine the effect of a marathon experience upon counseling trainees. An attempt was made to bring forth evidence of support or non-support for the use of marathons in a counselor training program. The meaningfulness of this study lies with the question of whether the marathon experience changed counselor effectiveness.

The purpose of this study was to gather, report and analyze the experiences of fourteen counselor-trainees in one university training program, using a variety of research methods over time. Bandura's observational learning paradigm, that individuals learn by imitating models, provided the structure for analyzing samples of audio-taped counseling sessions, as well as interviews and journals collected over a two-year period. Participant observation and content analysis were the principal methods used to gather and analyze data. Frequencies on audio-tapes were determined by external raters. Analysis of the interviews and journals was completed by the author. At acquisition, participants did imitate a model's attending skills demonstration, and other significant modeling influences were related to the theoretical orientations of the models. When experts and participants were compared, experts were using all behavior categories except accepting statements more frequently than participants. At the end of the training program, participants were more active than they were at a baseline observation, a finding consistent with previous longitudinal studies of maintenance of skills. The frequencies for each of the ten behavior categories, however, were variable over trials. This finding may be the result of variations in the behavior of models or of methodological problems in analyzing the data. Trainee statements about training experiences and norms of reference groups, collected from interviews and journal entries, indicate that trainees model trainer values and ideas as well as behaviors. Trainees described a developmental process during training, but conclusions from post-graduation employment experiences were too limited to analyze. The study's recommendations include possible research projects for training programs and guidelines for developing a supportive trainer/trainee relationship.

This study examined the influence of earlier life experiences on the development of beginning counsellors' personal theories of counselling. The significance of the study lies in its potential to extend counsellor educators' knowledge of the early processes involved in personal theory building. A qualitative method using a phenomenological design was chosen for the study. Five master's in counselling students, and two recent master's in counselling graduates were given a questionnaire to complete and then interviewed individually. A thematic analysis, and comparison to Skovholt's and Ronnestad's (1 992) study Themes in Counsellor Development were used to interpret the results. The findings revealed that theory development was impacted by normative and difficult life experiences and interpersonal relationships with parents, siblings, significant others, teachers, university professors, and counsellors. . . It was recommended that the findings be used to support future directions for structuring theory-building activities to better address the developmental and personal attributes of counselling students.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of supervisor feedback in contributing to skills acquired through microcounseling. A secondary purpose was to examine the effects of other counselor training experience on the acquisition of counseling skills.Sixty-four M.A.- level graduate students of the Ball State University European program in Counseling volunteered for the study. Subjects enrolled in an introductory counseling course during the spring quarter, 1977, were solicited by a form letter and in person the first night of class. Microtraining took place over a three week period of regularly scheduled classes at Ramstein Air Force Base, Germany.The writer trained four U.S. counseling students as supervisors, who then worked with two types of experimental groups. Except for supervisor feedback, each group received identical treatment. Counselor trainees viewed modeling tapes, read directions about specific skills to be learned, and performed videotaped practice interviews which were critiqued immediately afterwards. One experimental group received positive reinforcement from a supervisor upon attainment of each target behavior; the second experimental group received no supervisor feedback, but the tape was stopped after each counselor response for peer comments; the no-treatment control group spent an equivalent amount of time in class. The treatment consisted of three two-hour training periods during which the following three behavioral skills were taught: (a) open questions, (b) paraphrasing, and (c) responding to feelings and emotions.The effectiveness ratings of three specific skills plus an overall counseling skills rating served as dependent variables. Eight doctoral students were trained to judge the effectiveness of counseling skills (r =.82) using the IveyGluckstern Rating Scale (1974). A pre-study determined that judges rated audio and video tapes similarly; therefore, three, three minute audiotaped segments were excerpted from half-hour post-test interviews.The study format was based on a post-test-only control group design. The statistical treatment of the data included a 2 x 3 two-way analysis of variance and a Scheff' post hoc analysis to determine where the significant differences were. The level required for significance was the .05 level of confidence.Results of the data analysis were somewhat contrary to expectations. Counselor trainees given microcounseling with no supervisor feedback were significantly more effective than the supervisor feedback group. Open questions and paraphrasing were learned as well by trainees with no experience as by those with other counseling course experience. The skill of responding to feelings and emotions was acquired most efficiently by those with other counseling course experience and concurrent practice, and not at all by inexperienced counselors. An assessment of the overall effectiveness of skills showed that experienced students given microtraining with no supervisor feedback learned the basic skills most efficiently.An examination of these findings lead to several interesting conclusions. The results confirmed that a microcounseling format with no supervisor feedback was an effective vehicle for teaching basic counseling skills to small groups of counselor trainees. For students who had extensive counseling course experience, supervisor feedback was actually detrimental to skills acquisition. However, students with limited counseling course experience did benefit from feedback given by a supervisor. Evaluation also showed that additional practice was vital to learning more complex microcounseling skills.The implications of these conclusions are relevant to counselor education. Because students appeared to learn more efficiently during microtraining without supervisor feedback, maximum student participation should be encouraged and didactic presentation minimized. For optimum training benefit, the microcounseling timetable should be critically examined; simple skills can be introduced early in a training program, while microtraining of more complex skills should follow student acquisition of other counseling course experience.

The purpose of this study was to determine why some counselor educators seek specialized accreditation for their programs, and some others do not. The relationship between institutional size, institutional control and faculty publication record and the decision to seek accreditation was also studied. The basic design of this study involved a national survey completed by 122 chairpersons in counselor education programs. This represented a 75.3% response. Both parametric and non-parametric statistical analyses were performed. Ten institutions were selected for site visits and/or follow-up interviews by telephone. The results of the study indicated that many reasons account for voluntary application for specialized accreditation. A high correlation between expectations and achieved outcomes was reported. The interview data indicated that economic and status reasons are the most important motivating factors in seeking accreditation, even more important relating to quality assurance and program improvement. The two most frequent reasons for not seeking accreditation were related to cost and lack of perceived benefits. A correlation was found between institutional size, control, and faculty publication record and the decision to seek accreditation. Large graduate schools tended to be recognized by more than one accrediting agency. Small graduate schools tended not to have recognition by any specialized agency. A majority of private institutions did not have any specialized accreditation. Institutions without specialized accreditation or those accredited by NCATE reported fewer faculty publications than those institutions recognized by two or more agencies. There was strong agreement by respondents that the self-study and accreditation review helps to sustain or enhance program quality. / Ed. D.

Technology has a profound influence on how business, education, entertainment, and interpersonal communications are conducted. Mental health professionals have been exploring how technology can support and enhance client care since the 1960s. In the last decade the influence of technology in the practice of counseling has increased dramatically. As the use of technology increased, so did the expectations for counselor preparation programs to include technology instruction. In 1999, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) developed the Technical Competencies for Counselor Education Students: Recommended Guidelines for Program Development. This study examines the technological competence of counseling students at one southwestern university based on the ACES recommendations.