Countertrade is no longer a new term in international trade. Countertrade will continue to grow in the next decade despite opposition from various developed countries. Nevertheless, little attention has been given to develop a generally acceptable definition of countertrade and a classification of its forms. More importantly, the study of the legal implications of countertrade under GATT and national laws of countries involved in countertrade is still limited. This thesis is a first step to explore the definition and forms of countertrade, as well as its national and international legal implications. The first part of this thesis, respecting the overview and framework of countertrade, contains three chapters. The first chapter describes the purposes and methodology employed in the research of this thesis. Chapter two discusses the development of countertrade in world trade and the definitions and major forms of countertrade transactions. A definition of "countertrade" is proposed. The discussion of elements contained in each form of countertrade will assist classification of the forms of countertrade. The advantages and disadvantages of countertrade from the perspective of both developed and developing countries is also discussed. In Chapter three, the development of countertrade policy in Canada and Thailand is examined. The writer concludes that countertrade should be encouraged but with care taken to adopt the form most suitable to the specific problems each country is facing. Generally, Thailand and Canada should study the impacts of countertrade on their economies prior to implementing countertrade policies. In respect of their mutual relations, Thailand and Canada should put an emphasis on the development of countertrade practice in the forms of Offsets and Compensation. The second part respecting the legal implications of countertrade, consists of Chapters four, five and six. Chapter four examines the legal implications of countertrade under the major provisions of the GATT and its Codes. The writer concludes that there are a number of unresolved problems with which GATT and the Codes cannot deal efficiently because they were drafted while countertrade was still unimportant in international trade. A study of the impact of countertrade and a detailed study of the legal implications under GATT is still required. In Chapters five and six, the writer examines countertrade transactions under the private and regulatory laws of Canada and Thailand. The discussion, within the limited scope of the thesis, is aimed only at providing some precautions respecting possible effects of such laws on countertrade transactions. The private law aspect deals only with basic problems of choice of law principles, the State Immunity principle, and the enforcement of foreign or international arbitral awards that arise from disputes concerning countertrade agreements. The discussion of regulatory law is divided into three parts based on the purposes and nature of the legislation: Fiscal and other regulatory control laws; Remedial regulatory laws; and the Promotion and Administrative regulatory law. Specific provisions of the legislation are examined. Certain suggestions are made for reform of the law. The last part of this thesis, Chapters seven relates to practical consideration of negotiating and drafting countertrade agreements. The purpose of this part is to guide practitioners in preparing and structuring countertrade agreements efficiently. The writer also suggests the preparation of model countertrade agreements to overcome problems of time and cost in drafting agreements, and to strengthen the developing countries' bargaining power. Chapter eight, the conclusion, summarizes the major points which are discussed in previous chapters. The diversity of countertrade transactions probably precludes the development of uniform domestic or international rule to regulate this type of international commerce. This thesis has shown that lawyers in developed and. developing countries need, however, to be aware of the special nature of countertrade transactions when considering the application of laws of a general character so as to preserve the value of this form of trade. / Law, Peter A. Allard School of / Graduate

Bibliography: leaves 462-479. "... to provide a basis for understanding countertrade practices. In particular, however, it aims to provide assistance to trading parties to identify the problems associated with various forms of countertrade and to give them guidance in drafting countertrade contracts in the light of Australian law.".

Thesis (Ph. D.)--George Washington University, 1988. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 392-413).

Made available in DSpace on 2010-04-20T20:15:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 1998-05-11T00:00:00Z / Discorre sobre a modalidade de comércio genericamente designada como 'Countertrade' em âmbito internacional e nacional, devido à sua importância mercadológica lastreada em sua utilização principalmente como política econômica governamental. Apresenta sua variantes , discute sua conceituação e seu uso como instrumento estratégico de marketing corporativo. Aponta os riscos e dificuldades ligados à sua utilização. Aborda os modelos de apoio à decisão do seu uso e os requisitos organizacionais necessários à sua aplicação bem-sucedida.

Thesis (M.S.)--Naval Postgraduate School, 2003. / Title from title screen (viewed July 9, 2004). "December 2003." "ADA420510"--URL. Includes bibliographical references (p. 111-120). Also issued in paper format.

Bibliography: leaves 462-479. / xx, 479 leaves ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / "... to provide a basis for understanding countertrade practices. In particular, however, it aims to provide assistance to trading parties to identify the problems associated with various forms of countertrade and to give them guidance in drafting countertrade contracts in the light of Australian law.". / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Law, 1998?

L’offset, appelé également opération de compensation, est un outil de politique discriminatoire destiné à favoriser la production locale. Il désigne un transfert ou une création d’activités en échange de l’octroi d’un contrat commercial d’achat-vente dans le cadre d’un marché public international. Les gouvernements utilisent ces mécanismes comme un levier stratégique de développement et d’amélioration de la balance des paiements. Malgré la portée de ces pratiques, elles restent un mécanisme d’échange relativement méconnu et peu décrit dans la littérature académique. L’objet de cette thèse est de définir, expliciter et évaluer l’importance de ces pratiques dans le commerce international et de proposer des pistes de réflexion pour le succès (l’efficience et l’efficacité) d’une politique de ce type imposée par le gouvernement hôte aux firmes internationales. Afin de prendre en compte les variables critiques du succès d’une politique d’offset, la relation entre l’État hôte et l’entreprise obligataire et le résultat de cette interaction sont examinés par l’intermédiaire de la théorie des jeux. L’application de ce cadre d’analyse à l’étude de la politique d’offset de l’Afrique du Sud et plus particulièrement à l’analyse des 121 projets d’offset civils fournis entre 1996 et 2012, dans le cadre du programme d’achats stratégiques de Défense met en évidence les résultats suivants : lors de la signature des contrats, les projets d’offset laissent espérer d’importantes retombées économiques et sociales pour le pays. Toutefois, au cours du processus de mise en œuvre, les nombreuses dérogations aux règles et aux procédures réglementaires fixées réduisent largement les effets positifs des projets et nuisent à leur efficacité. L’opacité des modalités de négociation, de sélection et d’exécution des projets d’offset permettent d’affirmer que ces pratiques n’ont pas toujours garanti la meilleure valeur possible des achats publics. Pour des problèmes d’information et d’analyse, il est difficile de statuer sur l’efficience globale de la politique d’offset sud-africaine mais le bilan estimatif reste positif. / Offsets arrangements in government procurement are discriminatory policy tools aimed at increasing local production. They reflect a transfer or a creation of new activities as a pre-condition to the validity of the purchasing contract. The governments use these mechanisms to encourage local development or to improve the balance-of-payments. In spite of the broad utilization of offset practices, they are relatively unknown and little described in academic literature. The goal of this thesis is to define, to explain and to assess the importance of these practices in the international trade and to provide a theoretical framework within which it will be possible to critically appraise the success of an offset policy (its effectiveness and efficiency) for host countries. In order to take into account the success factors for an offset policy, the relationship between the host country and the obligor as well as the result of this relationship is examined through the game theory approach. By applying this general framework to the study of South African Offset policy and more particularly to the evaluation of 121 civil offset projects provided between 1996 and 2012, under the Strategic Defense Package purchase we find the following results: at the conclusion of public procurement contracts, South-African offset projects hold out promises of important economic benefits for the country. Nevertheless, during the implementation process, many violations of rules and procedures decrease the positive impact of these projects and hinder their effectiveness. The lack of transparency in the negotiation process, the selection and the execution phase of offset projects show that South Africa did not obtain best value for public money. It is difficult to appraise global program efficiency because of lack of data and analysis problems. However the estimated impact remains positive.

Esta tese versa sobre uma das formas mais engenhosas de comércio internacional, embora seja egressa de antigas práticas do comércio em todo o mundo. Trata-se do intercâmbio compensado, um sistema muito utilizado, no século passado, nos países Cortina de Ferro, e que mais recentemente renasce nos países do Terceiro Mundo, onde socorrem países com escassez de divisas, substituindo moedas por countertrade. O objetivo principal desse trabalho é o de verificar as possibilidades da aplicação desse sistema de trocas compensadas no mercado da América Latina, como ênfase no mercado brasileiro e equatoriano. O levantamento bibliográfico apontou a existência de formas mais recentes de utilização de operações desse tipo no sofisticado mundo do comércio exterior atual. Os conceitos e as formas do intercâmbio compensado evoluíram fortemente nesses últimos anos e requereu o estudo de operações cometidas em várias partes do mundo, envolvendo desde empresas estatais a empresas de variados portes, inclusive de grandes multinacionais com operação ao redor de todo o mundo. Parece não haver impedimentos de qualquer natureza para países ou empresas privadas e públicas. Esse levantamento motivou o autor a desenvolver pesquisa qualitativa em amostra intencional, para conhecer o uso real e concreto dessas operações no Brasil e no Equador, com o objetivo de identificar barreiras e outras dificuldades à adoção dessas operações. O Brasil foi escolhido por apresentar uma economia multisetorial capaz de produzir uma oferta diversificada para os países Latino-Americanos e, de outro, o Equador país que necessita de altos volumes de importações, nos próximos anos, para conseguir imputar maior dinamismo a sua vida econômica. Foram realizadas 55 entrevistas com empresários brasileiros, localizados no Estado de São Paulo e o Brasil e 155 com empresários equatorianos, todos envolvidos com comércio internacional, sejam eles, industriais ou comerciantes. A análise dos resultados apontou para um desconhecimento quase completo desse sistema de trocas nos dois países, evidenciando ser esse o maior problema para a adoção das trocas compensadas. Por outro lado, as informações apresentadas sobre esse tema evidenciaram um entusiasmo inicial pelas perspectivas que oferecem para novos negócios com países da região, e revelam um interesse forte dos empresários em conhecer os procedimentos para realização dessas operações. Parece muito pertinente, portanto, que os dois governos locais precisem levar ao empresariado informações e disponibilizassem alguma forma de apoio a esse sistema de comércio que dispensa o uso de divisas, sejam elas quais forem. / This doctoral thesis deals is about one the most recent forms of international trade, although it comes from the oldest commercial philosophy. It is the compensated exchange, a system well-known in the Iron Curtain countries, but lately in the countries of the Third World where they are replacing the money by the countertrade. Its main objective was to verify if it is possible to be applied it in the Brazilian market, in the Ecuadorian market and in general in the Latin American market. As a first step, a bibliographical survey was made looking to understand, from its origin, the concepts of the new forms of exchange offset to its application from the experiences of multinational companies and countries that have used this new form of foreign trade. What was sought was to prove its effectiveness, the next step was to develop a quantitative research that takes us to the real, practical and concrete thinking about the use of the countertrade. Based on a questionnaire designed for this purpose, a pilot was carried out together with a population of 150 foreign trade entrepreneurs, traders and industrial entrepreneurs from Ecuador. As well as qualitative research with a population of 50 foreign trade entrepreneurs, traders and industrial entrepreneurs from Brazil, mostly from the State of São Paulo. After analyzing the results, we have been able to understand two important things. The first: that most entrepreneurs do not know the countertrade, therefore, it is important to start both in Brazil and Ecuador begin to disseminate this new form of international trade. And the second: surprisingly, the entrepreneurs who knew how the countretrade operates were very open to this new form of commerce

Esta tese versa sobre uma das formas mais engenhosas de comércio internacional, embora seja egressa de antigas práticas do comércio em todo o mundo. Trata-se do intercâmbio compensado, um sistema muito utilizado, no século passado, nos países Cortina de Ferro, e que mais recentemente renasce nos países do Terceiro Mundo, onde socorrem países com escassez de divisas, substituindo moedas por countertrade. O objetivo principal desse trabalho é o de verificar as possibilidades da aplicação desse sistema de trocas compensadas no mercado da América Latina, como ênfase no mercado brasileiro e equatoriano. O levantamento bibliográfico apontou a existência de formas mais recentes de utilização de operações desse tipo no sofisticado mundo do comércio exterior atual. Os conceitos e as formas do intercâmbio compensado evoluíram fortemente nesses últimos anos e requereu o estudo de operações cometidas em várias partes do mundo, envolvendo desde empresas estatais a empresas de variados portes, inclusive de grandes multinacionais com operação ao redor de todo o mundo. Parece não haver impedimentos de qualquer natureza para países ou empresas privadas e públicas. Esse levantamento motivou o autor a desenvolver pesquisa qualitativa em amostra intencional, para conhecer o uso real e concreto dessas operações no Brasil e no Equador, com o objetivo de identificar barreiras e outras dificuldades à adoção dessas operações. O Brasil foi escolhido por apresentar uma economia multisetorial capaz de produzir uma oferta diversificada para os países Latino-Americanos e, de outro, o Equador país que necessita de altos volumes de importações, nos próximos anos, para conseguir imputar maior dinamismo a sua vida econômica. Foram realizadas 55 entrevistas com empresários brasileiros, localizados no Estado de São Paulo e o Brasil e 155 com empresários equatorianos, todos envolvidos com comércio internacional, sejam eles, industriais ou comerciantes. A análise dos resultados apontou para um desconhecimento quase completo desse sistema de trocas nos dois países, evidenciando ser esse o maior problema para a adoção das trocas compensadas. Por outro lado, as informações apresentadas sobre esse tema evidenciaram um entusiasmo inicial pelas perspectivas que oferecem para novos negócios com países da região, e revelam um interesse forte dos empresários em conhecer os procedimentos para realização dessas operações. Parece muito pertinente, portanto, que os dois governos locais precisem levar ao empresariado informações e disponibilizassem alguma forma de apoio a esse sistema de comércio que dispensa o uso de divisas, sejam elas quais forem. / This doctoral thesis deals is about one the most recent forms of international trade, although it comes from the oldest commercial philosophy. It is the compensated exchange, a system well-known in the Iron Curtain countries, but lately in the countries of the Third World where they are replacing the money by the countertrade. Its main objective was to verify if it is possible to be applied it in the Brazilian market, in the Ecuadorian market and in general in the Latin American market. As a first step, a bibliographical survey was made looking to understand, from its origin, the concepts of the new forms of exchange offset to its application from the experiences of multinational companies and countries that have used this new form of foreign trade. What was sought was to prove its effectiveness, the next step was to develop a quantitative research that takes us to the real, practical and concrete thinking about the use of the countertrade. Based on a questionnaire designed for this purpose, a pilot was carried out together with a population of 150 foreign trade entrepreneurs, traders and industrial entrepreneurs from Ecuador. As well as qualitative research with a population of 50 foreign trade entrepreneurs, traders and industrial entrepreneurs from Brazil, mostly from the State of São Paulo. After analyzing the results, we have been able to understand two important things. The first: that most entrepreneurs do not know the countertrade, therefore, it is important to start both in Brazil and Ecuador begin to disseminate this new form of international trade. And the second: surprisingly, the entrepreneurs who knew how the countretrade operates were very open to this new form of commerce