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This thesis analyses the notion of "author" as a "critical category" in literary interpretation, i.e. the extent to which author-related knowledge is used to make claims about a literary work which exceed what could have been said of the text alone. Chapter 1 gives an account of the principal theorisations made about the critical category of the author in literary theory and analytical aesthetics. It is argued that ontology is a central dimension of these theories, and in particular that the notion of the “author” as a relevant element for interpretation is logically dependent on a "thick" ontology of the literary work, i.e. on considering the work as irreducible to its textual manifestation. It is argued that the "author" in literary interpretation is typically constructed out of notions that come from two different sources, namely the text and the writer. The historical situatedness of this "thick" ontology in a modern conception of copyright law is also briefly analysed. Chapter 2 tackles the use of the category in the British and French culture of the second half of the nineteenth century. It is argued that the dominant critical paradigm in the age was “authorialist”, i.e. it considered the author as always relevant for an understanding of the work. A case is made for this tendency being a part of a larger tendency within that culture to consider phenomena in terms of their genesis. The practical consequences of this in the literary interpretation of the time are then considered. Chapters 3 and 4 propose a series of close readings of literary works of the same area and period, mainly associated with the Decadence (Swinburne, Pater, Mirbeau, Wilde). The focus is on the issue of whether and how their textual features comply with or resist the "authorialist" readings to which they were subjected.

This study argues that novels by contemporary women writers, such as Doris Lessing, May Sarton, Barbara Pym and Jenny Diski, through their representation of older female protagonists, create alternative discourses of ageing to those that dominate Western society. By placing these figures at the centre of their narratives, the texts counteract the silence and pejorative stereotyping that routinely surrounds the lives of the aged. The technique of studying literary representations of women is not new; in fact, it is a trusted part of feminist methodology. However, one of the assertions of this dissertation is that it is rarely used to investigate texts about the senescent, reflecting feminism's failure to include the older women in their theories. Part one of the dissertation examines such issues in depth, setting out the theoretical orientation of the study. It considers popular representations and paradigms of ageing, as well as considering the power of normalising discourse and dynamics of representation. Part two uses this material to analyse the strategies that British and North American authors have employed, since the 1960's, to challenge common stereotypes of older women. The first three chapters focus on novels that portray protagonists who display emotions, not usually associated with the old, which are revealed in relation to different aspects of ageing: anger and frustration (dependency); passion and desire (sexuality); and contentment (daily life). Chapter 7, 'The Wise and Archetypal Older Woman', shifts its attention away from more realist texts to study characters who emerge from the covers of ratiocinative fiction. It argues that conventional critiques of the genre often negate its more polemical elements, which is a result of their failure to use an age- and gender-aware approach and a problem that generally greets intelligent novels about female senescence. This thesis sees itself as part of a movement that aims to create a space in which older female characters' voices can be heard and recognised. It contends that the authors treated here produce visions of ageing that are not solely concerned with stagnation and decline. They represent a varied and compelling group of protagonists and, in doing so, illustrate that older women are worthy of literary, social and feminist interest.

This study is an investigation into the communicative power of visual metaphor and the ways in which it is used by artists. A wide range of works of art are used to exemplify the theories presented. The first part of the thesis is a discussion of whether the term 'metaphor' can be used to describe some of the transformations which take place in visual art. It is shown that works of visual art produce similar kinds of displacement of meaning as those created in verbal metaphor. An idea for a theory of visual metaphor is put forward. Some applications of this theory to specific works of art are discussed. The 'ironic glance' which is characteristic of the artist and often of the viewer is identified and explained. Historical ideas of irony are placed in context with modern concepts. It is postulated that all creativity requires the artist to exercise irony in his or her initial view of the world; in making; and in the implicit assumption of a `putative audience'. A detailed discussion of examples of visual art selected predominantly from 1800 to the present shows that metaphorical expression takes place in many kinds of visual art, from the allegorical to the apparently abstract. A discussion of the interaction between artist and viewer follows. The concept of `distance' in the making and viewing of artworks is considered, particularly in connection with the idea of an ironic stance. The idea of the 'ironic glance' incorporates within it a sense of distance in all aspects of making and looking at art. The different ways in which artists communicate metaphorically are discussed. The importance of 'received' knowledge, especially in connection with the 'formal' elements of artworks and the individual viewer's 'mental store'. is considered. The way in which a viewer approaches art is explored' by showing the way that metaphor directs thought in a way which paradoxically both illuminates understanding and limits our view. The viewer's `mental store' allows him or her to understand some artworks and through this understanding approach other works. It is suggested that the directive nature of metaphor means that the artist, either consciously or subconsciously, has in mind a putative audience. Throughout, the thesis is supported by a broad range of reference. Similar ideas expressed by philosophers, critics, theorists of language, poets and artists are drawn together to support the formulation of new ideas linking metaphorical expression, irony and the relationship of an artist to the putative viewer.

published_or_final_version / Literary Studies / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / English Studies and Comparative Literature / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / Chinese Historical Studies / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / Chinese / Master / Master of Arts

published_or_final_version / English Studies and Comparative Literature / Master / Master of Philosophy