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Les lésions iléales de patients atteints de maladie de Crohn (MC) sont anormalement colonisées par Escherichia coli adhérent et invasif (AIEC). Les mutations du gène NOD2 sont un facteur de risque pour la MC iléale et diminuent la clairance bactérienne. Le système immunitaire inné et la flore commensale sont indispensables au maintien de l’intégrité de la barrière intestinale. Le but de notre étude est d’évaluer l’impact d’un déséquilibre de la flore commensale induit par un traitement antibiotique sur la colonisation par AIEC chez des souris sauvages (WT) et NOD2 knock-out (NOD2KO), et les conséquences sur l'inflammation intestinale.MÉTHODE : Après un traitement antibiotique de 3 jours par voie orale, des souris WT et NOD2KO sont infectées avec 10^9 UFC d'AIEC (06362 ou LF82) une fois par jour pendant 2 jours. Les contrôles sont constitués de souris non infectées et de souris infectées sans traitement antibiotique. Les animaux sont sacrifiés à J1, J5 et J60 après l’infection par AIEC. En parallèle, des souris WT sont infectées par AIEC consécutivement à un traitement par dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) et sont sacrifiées 9 jours plus tard. Des échantillons de côlon, d’iléon, et tissus mésentériques sont prélevés pour 1) quantifier AIEC dans les muqueuses colique et iléale, 2) étudier la translocation bactérienne et 3) évaluer les signes d’inflammation histologiques et moléculaires. RÉSULTATS : Sans traitement antibiotique, AIEC n’est pas capable de coloniser les souris WT et NOD2KO. Comparé aux animaux non traités, le traitement antibiotique a permis une augmentation significative de la colonisation des flores adhérentes colique et iléale par AIEC chez les souris WT et NOD2KO. Une colonisation persistante par AIEC était encore observée à J5 uniquement chez les souris NOD2KO, mais n’était plus détectée à J60. La translocation mésentérique d’AIEC était observée uniquement chez les souris NOD2KO. De plus, on remarque une plus grande sensibilité des souris NOD2KO traitées par antibiotiques à la colonisation intestinale par des entérobactéries opportunistes potentiellement pathogènes. Aucun signe d’inflammation intestinale histologique ou moléculaire n’est observé chez les souris WT et NOD2KO traitées par antibiotiques et infectées par AIEC. Au cours de la colite induite par le DSS, une colonisation et une persistance d'AIEC ont été observés dans le côlon. De plus, une augmentation dramatique des paramètres clinique, histologique et moléculaire de la colite a été observé chez les souris infectées par AIEC mais pas chez les souris infectées par une souche d'E. coli commensale.CONCLUSION : Le traitement antibiotique était nécessaire à la colonisation de l'intestin et des tissus mésentériques par AIEC, et la persistance d'AIEC était dépendante de NOD2. AIEC a exacerbé une colite préexistante induite par le DSS chez les souris WT. / Ileal lesions of Crohn's disease (CD) patients are abnormally colonized by adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC). NOD2 gene mutations are risk factors for CD and impair bacterial clearance. Since innate immune system and commensal microbiota are critical to maintain intestinal barrier integrity, we evaluated the impact of commensal microbiota disruption induced by short term antibiotic treatment on AIEC colonization in wild type (WT) and NOD2 knock-out mice (NOD2KO), and the consequences on intestinal inflammation. Methods: After 3 days of oral antibiotic treatment, WT and NOD2KO mice were infected with 10^9 CFU AIEC once a day for 2 days. Controls are constitued by non infected mice and mice challenged with AIEC without antibiotic treatment. Animals were sacrificed 1, 5 and 60 days after AIEC administration. In parallel, mice were challenged with AIEC subsequent to a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) treatment and sacrificed 9 days later. Ileum, colon, and mesenteric tissues were sampled for 1) AIEC quantification in ileal and colonic tissues, 2) bacterial translocation, and 3) evaluation of intestinal inflammation. Results: Without antibiotic treatment, AIEC was not able to colonize WT and NOD2KO mice. Compared with non-treated animals, antibiotic treatment led to a significant increase in ileal and colonic adherent AIEC colonization in both WT and NOD2KO mice. Persistent AIEC colonization was still observed until day 5 only in NOD2KO mice, disappearing at day 60. Mesenteric translocation of AIEC was observed only in NOD2KO mice. Morover, NOD2KO mice treated with antibiotics were more colonized by opportunistic enterobacteria. No inflammation was observed in WT and NOD2KO mice treated with antibiotics and infected with AIEC. During DSS-induced colitis, colonization and persistence of AIEC was observed in the colon. Moreover, a dramatic increase in clinical, histological, and molecular parameters of colitis was observed in mice infected with AIEC but not with a commensal E. coli strain.Conclusion: Antibiotic treatment was necessary for AIEC colonization of the gut and mesenteric tissues and persistence of AIEC was dependent on NOD2. AIEC exacerbated a preexisting DSS-induced colitis in WT mice.

Les Maladies Inflammatoires Chroniques de l’Intestin (MICI) comprennent la maladie de Crohn (MC) et la rectocolite hémorragique (RCH). Ce sont des inflammations chroniques du tube digestif dont les causes sont inconnues. Une meilleure connaissance de leur épidémiologie pourrait orienter vers des pistes étiologiques. Jusqu’à la création du Registre EPIMAD en 1988, il n’existait en France aucune donnée d’incidence. Nous avons créé en 1988 une étude prospective d’incidence des MICI, reconnu «Registre» par l’Inserm et l’InVS en 1992. Le territoire couvert par Epimad comporte le Nord, le Pas-de-Calais, la Somme et la Seine-Maritime avec près de 6 millions d’habitants soit 9,3% de la population française. La collection des cas repose sur une collaboration multidisciplinaire incluant les gastroentérologues (GE) (libéraux, hospitaliers, adultes et pédiatres; n=262), les services d’Epidémiologie de Lille et Rouen, la plateforme d’aide méthodologique en Biostatistiques du CHRU de Lille et les Centres Hospitalo-Universitaires de Lille, Amiens et Rouen. Neuf enquêteurs se déplacent sur les lieux de consultation des GE et recueillent les informations nécessaires à la validation des diagnostics. Deux GE experts revoient chaque dossier indépendamment et posent le diagnostic final de MC ou RCH certaine, probable ou possible, de colite indéterminée, de colite aiguë ou de colite inclassée. Pour les cas atypiques et non classés, un suivi systématique est effectué pour le classement définitif (MICI ou non MICI). Un croisement des bases du Registre et des bases hospitalières est effectué une fois par an pour mesurer l’exhaustivité. 80% des cas incidents sont diagnostiqués par les GE libéraux, 13% par les GE des hôpitaux généraux et 7% par les GE universitaires. Entre 1988 et 2008, l’incidence moyenne des MICI était de 11,3/105 habitants (6,4 pour la MC, 4,4 pour la RCH et 0,5 pour IBDU). Pendant cette période, l’incidence de la MC a augmenté de 30% (100% chez l’adolescent) alors que celle de la RCH est restée stable. Le délai diagnostique médian était de 3 mois dans la MC et de 2 mois dans la RCH. Le pourcentage de patients ayant un diagnostic posé plus de 9 mois après l’apparition des symptômes a diminué avec le temps. La validité diagnostique dans les cas non classant d’emblée a été assurée par un suivi de 2 ans et a montré que seul l’âge < 40 ans était prédictif d’une évolution vers une MICI chez un patient présentant une colite aiguë. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence des présentations cliniques différentes en fonction de l’âge. Ainsi, chez l’adulte jeune, la MC est plus étendue que chez les sujets > 60 ans au diagnostic. Grâce à un nombre élevé de cas incidents, une hétérogénéité spatiale de l’incidence des MICI a été montrée dans les zones agricoles et suburbaines sans lien avec le niveau social des populations. En utilisant la méthode des statistiques de scan rajoutant la dimension temporelle à l’analyse spatiale, nous avons trouvé plusieurs clusters de sur et sous incidence constants dans le temps. Nos perspectives sont: 1) Poursuivre l’enregistrement des cas incidents et établir des données de prévalence; 2) Etudier les facteurs de risque environnementaux par des études d’épidémiologie analytique (corrélations écologiques, études cas témoins, études exposés-non exposés); 3) Etudier les facteurs de risque génétiques (fréquence des variants NOD2) dans la population du Registre; 4) Créer une étude prospective sur les paramètres prédictifs (profil génétique, profil métagénomique du microbiote intestinal, profil sérologique) de développer une MC dans une population de sujets à haut risque (sujets indemnes de MC âgés de 10 à 35 ans et appartenant à une famille multiplexe, à la descendance de formes conjugales ou à une paire de jumeaux discordants). Conclusions: EPIMAD est le plus gros Registre mondial sur les MICI en population générale, reconnu pour la qualité de ses travaux, rendu possible par la création d’un réseau-ville-hôpital unique. / Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) including Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are among the most serious and perplexing of digestive diseases. Their pathophysiology remains poorly understood. Geographic variations in the incidence of IBD could offer new clues about environmental risk factors. There were no data concerning the incidence of IBD in France. We created the first French prospective study on IBD incidence in 1988. This study became “Registre” recognized by Inserm and InVS in 1992. This prospective study was performed through all gastroenterologists (GE) (n=262) of the region of Nord, Pas-de-Calais, Somme and Seine-Maritime including near of 6 million of inhabitants corresponding to 9.3% of the whole French population. Collection of new cases is based on a close multidisciplinary collaboration including GE (whatever their practice), Epidemiology Unit of Hospital and University of Lille and Rouen, Biostatistics Unit of Lille Hospital and University and Academic Hospitals of Amiens, Lille and Rouen. Each GE referred patients consulting for the first time with clinical symptoms compatible with IBD. Data are collected by 9 interviewer practitioners present at the GE’s consulting room. Two independent experts GE assessed each case independently and made a final diagnosis of definite, probable, possible CD, UC or ulcerative proctitis (UP); Inflammatory Bowel Disease unclassifiable (IBDU); acute colitis or unspecified colitis. Possible cases of IBD, acute colitis and unspecified colitis are systematically followed-up and when a new event is recorded the chart is reviewed by the experts and a new final diagnosis is made. A control of the completeness collection is made each year by crossing data from Hospital Health databases. 80% of incident cases have been reported by private GE, 13% by general hospitals and 7% by academic centres. From 1988 to 2008 the mean annual incidence was 11.3/105 inhabitants for IBD including 6.4 for CD, 4.4 for UC and 0.5 for IBDU with a ratio CD/UC of 1.45. During this period CD incidence increased by 30% (100% in young adults) while that of UC remained stable. Valuable clinical information has been obtained; median time between onset of symptoms and diagnosis was 3 months in CD and 2 months in UC. The number of patients with a diagnosis delay > 9 months decreased over time. Age < 40 years at diagnosis was the only clinical predictor for subsequent IBD in patients with an initial diagnosis of acute colitis. Clinical presentation according to age at diagnosis may influence clinical course of IBD. In younger patients IBD had a more disabling course than in the elderly-onset IBD patients. Thanks to the large number of incident cases, we assessed spatial IBD incidence variation at the canton level and analyzed its association with a deprivation index. A spatial heterogeneity was found with a noteworthy predominance of CD in agricultural areas but no significant link with deprivation. We completed the spatial analysis using spatial scan statistics methods allowing revealing several time-constant (since 1988) clusters and other time-varying clusters. Perspectives: 1) To continue to record incident cases and establish prevalence data of IBD; 2) To study environmental risk factors using epidemiological analytic studies; 3) To study genetic risk factors establishing a geographic map of NOD2 variants in the EPIMAD’s area and 4) To assess the predictiveness of patient microbiota and host factors in a prospective, longitudinal study enrolling yet-healthy subjects at risk to develop CD (healthy patients aged 10-35 years and belonging to discordant twins, to offspring of IBD affected couples and to IBD multiplex families). In conclusion, since 1988, the EPIMAD registry has been recognized as a valuable tool for studies on genetic and environmental risk factors. It has also made it possible to reinforce networking between private practices, general and university hospitals at a regional level.

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In Canada, 3,300 children under the age of 20 are living with Crohn’s Disease (CD) (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of Canada, 2008). When an illness such as CD occurs in adolescence, the challenges associated with it are further compounded by the developmental tasks associated with this life stage. The purpose of this study was to understand how adolescents experience living with CD; to explore the impact of disease activity on their quality of life (QOL) and the strategies utilized to maintain and improve their QOL. Using a resiliency framework and narrative inquiry as a research methodology, seven adolescents were interviewed. The results include seven individual stories exemplifying their experiences, and from the stories shared, four patterns emerged: (1) Unconditional Support, (2) Embracing and Accepting Differences, (3) Attitudes and Personal Beliefs and (4) Daily Coping Strategies. These findings may have relevance for health professionals and families and adolescents with CD.

Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease, primarily affecting the young, which causes marked morbidity and reduced quality of life. Currently there is no cure for CD, and the causes of this disease are poorly understood. In ruminants, Johne’s disease (JD) is characterised by chronic intestinal inflammation similar to CD and is caused by the pathogen Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), which invades and replicates within the phagocytes of infected animals, leading to chronic disease. There is increasing molecular and microbiological evidence of Map bacteria in CD patients. However, little is known regarding the role of Map in the aetiology of CD. This thesis demonstrated that a human isolate of Map traffics through THP-1 human monocytes via a similar path to that taken by pathogenic mycobacteria. Flow cytometry demonstrated that Map are phagocytosed via a cholesterol-dependant mechanism, potentially mediated by a cell wall constituent. Once internalised, live Map reside in cholesterol-rich areas of the cell. These compartments exhibit reduced acidity compared to the compartments containing killed-Map, and have atypical retention of markers including the late endosomal marker Rab 7 and cellular TACO protein. Both of these markers were also present on phagosomes of pathogenic mycobacteria, where they interrupt fusion of the compartment with lysosomes. This was confirmed by visualisation of these proteins on phagosomes containing M. bovis,a known mycobacterial pathogen. Cholesterol depletion using simvastatin affected Map persistence in THP-1 cells at 1 and 2 weeks post infection, a finding similar to other studies with M. tuberculosis. Spheroplast-like forms were evident after long term culture of Map with THP-1 monocytes, visualised by light and electron microscopy. These were similar to forms observed in peripheral blood leukocytes from a CD patient. Collectively, these results support the hypothesis that Map may be involved in the aetiology of at least a subset of CD cases.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Drexel University, 2006. / Includes abstract and vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 131-148).

Economic inluence in Czech republic

Methotrexate (MTX) is an antagonist of folic acid metabolism that was initially designed to treat malignancies, including childhood leukemia. After its anti-inflammatory properties were discovered, use of MTX became widespread in the treatment algorithms for several autoimmune illnesses, including the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). The specific cause(s) of IBD in general, and CD in specific, have not yet been fully elucidated. However, most investigators agree that the pathogenesis is likely due to a combination of genetic vulnerability and precipitating environmental exposures. Some of these identifiable modifiers include adherence to a low fiber diet, vitamin D deficiency, smoking, and an alteration in the diversity of the gut microbiome in response to viral or bacterial illness or antibiotic medications. Disease activity in patients with CD, particularly during clinical trials, is assessed using composite indices, including the Crohn’s Disease Activity Index (CDAI), Crohn’s Disease Endoscopic Index of Severity (CDEIS), and the Short Inflammatory Bowel Disease Questionnaire (SIBDQ). A wide range of medications is used to induce and maintain long-term remission in patients with active CD. These include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents (thiopurines and MTX) and several classes of biologics such as TNF-inhibitors, anti-IL-12/23 and anti-adhesion molecules. TNF-inhibitors are often used as first-line biologic therapies in patients with IBD because they have been in widespread use for over two decades and therefore afford the clinician a more data-driven consideration of risk to benefit ratio when discussing treatment options with their patients. However, there is a relatively high rate of primary non-response and acquired secondary loss of response to TNF-inhibitors. A secondary loss of response often results from the production of neutralizing antibodies, referred to as Antibodies to Infliximab (ATI). In response, concomitant low-dose oral MTX therapy has been employed by clinicians to reduce the immunogenicity of biologic therapy. In addition, previous studies have also demonstrated the efficacy of MTX monotherapy in maintaining clinical remission in patients with CD when delivered at relatively higher doses. However, there is no consensus on the proper dosing or route of administration (oral or parenteral) of MTX. This knowledge gap has resulted in inconsistent clinical practice across physicians and institutions. Pharmacologic studies have identified the metabolic pathways underpinning the mechanism of action of MTX. It is generally understood that MTX in its native form is free to move across cell membranes in a bidirectional manner. It is only after MTX has been glutamated (MTX-PG) that it is “caged” within the cell and can exert its effects. MTX can be glutamated on up to five discrete sites, each contributing to its stereospecificity and membrane permeability. A better understanding of this process may inform the development of rational dosing and pharmacokinetic-based treatment algorithms that provide patients with a sufficient MTX (and subsequently MTX-PG) level required to achieve anticipated clinical efficacy but not so high as to contribute undo morbidity to treated patients. Therefore, optimizing MTX/MTX-PG dosing can significantly advance the utility of this immunomodulatory pathway to treat IBD and other autoimmune disorders. MTX can be administered orally or parenterally, the latter being delivered by either subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. Previous studies have demonstrated increased bioavailability of the drug at higher doses when delivered via the parenteral route. The native form of MTX has a short half-life and is eliminated from the body within 24 hours. Instead, it is the active metabolites of MTX which are retained for more extended periods of time and are ultimately responsible for the anti-inflammatory effects in the body. A MTX molecule can have anywhere from 1 and 5 glutamyl groups attached to it, denoted as MTX-PG1, MTX-PG 2, MTX-PG3, MTX-PG 4, and MTX-PG 5. The mechanism(s) by which MTX-PG moieties contribute anti-inflammatory activity is not fully understood but remains an area of active research. Several studies have explored the association between disease activity and erythrocyte MTX-PG levels. While initial results were mixed, more recent prospective cohort studies in patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) found an inverse relationship between intracellular levels of longer-chain MTX-PG (MTX-PG3, MTX-PG4, and MTX-PG5) and disease activity. This finding has raised the possibility that monitoring MTX-PG levels could be used as a clinical tool to optimize MTX therapy for patients. However, several key issues persist, including high interpatient variability in MTX-PG levels. Similar studies in patients with CD have thus far been scarce. More prospective studies are needed to explore the utility of MTX-PG pharmacokinetics as a useful biomarker and clinical tool to develop an individualized approach to managing patients with Crohn’s disease.

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