Cross-country (XC) mountain bike (MTB) riding is a new cycling discipline and research examining the physiological demands of MTB racing is limited. The purpose of this study was to comprehensively measure physiological characteristics, to identify the performance demands of XC and time trial (TT) MTB racing and to simulate a field MTB race in the laboratory to measure the physiological responses associated with racing. Twelve male and four female elite MTB cyclists volunteered to take part in this study. Subjects completed maximal aerobic power and, anaerobic power and capacity tests. MTB race data was collected during TT and XC competitions with SRM MTB power cranks fitted to the subjects MTB. Five male MTB cyclists (V . O2max 72.0 +/- 4.6 ml/kg/min-1, maximum power output (MPO) 5.40 +/- 0.30 W/kg-1, maximum heart rate (HRmax) 189 +/- 7 bpm) performed two laps of a MTB course in the field using their race bikes with MTB SRM power cranks fitted. A laboratory MTB race simulation was performed using a wind braked ergometer. Cyclists attempted to match the average and peak power output (W/kg-1) achieved in the field trial in the laboratory. Power output (PO), heart rate (HR) and cadence (revolutions per minute, rpm) were measured during field and laboratory trials, while oxygen uptake (V . O2) was determined only during the laboratory simulation. Results showed TT MTB racing is significantly shorter in duration and distance than XC racing and significantly higher for power output and heart rate, with more time spent above anaerobic threshold (16.0 +/- 2.4 and 22.8 +/- 4.3% time) and MPO (38.4 +/- 5.2 and 26.5 +/- 9.4% time) than XC racing (p<0.05). Mean power output and heart rate between the field and laboratory trials were similar (4.18 +/- 0.55 and 4.17 +/- 0.15 W/kg-1 respectively, 175 +/- 9 and 170 +/- 8 bpm). Time spent below 2 W/kg-1 and above 6 W/kg-1 for the field and laboratory trials accounted for ~32% and ~30% of the total time, respectively. During field and laboratory trials, cyclists utilised 77.8 and 77.3% of MPO, 93 and 90% of HRmax, respectively. There was a significant difference between mean cadence in the field and laboratory trials (60.3 +/- 9.1 and 75.2 +/- 7.0 rpm, respectively, p<0.05). The cadence band of 60-69 rpm showed a significant difference between the time spent in that band from the field (14.6%) to the laboratory (4.6%). The time spent above a cadence of 80 rpm in the field was 29.8% compared to the laboratory at 62.0% of the time. Mean and peak V . O2 for the simulation was 57.5 +/- 3.3 and 69.3 +/- 4.4 ml/kg-1/min-1 respectively, with cyclists sustaining an average of ~80% V . O2max. In summary, MTB competition requires multiple short-high intensity efforts and places high demands on both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The power output and heart rate responses to a MTB field race are similar when simulated in the laboratory, although in the laboratory higher cadences are selected for the higher power outputs than the field.

<p>Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka huruvida en stor andel av intensiva grenspecifika pass utvecklade den aeroba kapaciteten hos motionärer som tränar inför Vasaloppet. Två testmetoder användes; ett maximalt laktattest på rullskidor utomhus och ett maximalt cykeltest på en cykelergometer inomhus. En utav fp genomförde ett tidstest på rullskidor på en given sträcka istället för laktattestet. Båda testerna genomfördes före och efter en 11-veckors träningsperiod som bestod av 41 procent medel- och högintensiva pass som genomfördes grenspecifikt. Det betyder intervaller på rullskidor eller i skidgång samt snabbdistanspass på rullskidor. Övriga 59 procent av träningspassen genomfördes på en lågintensiv nivå, vilket är mindre än de 70-80 procent som normalt förespråkas för en uthållighetsidrottare. 4 försökspersoner (fp) på motionsnivå deltog (4 män och 1 kvinna). Fp 3 förbättrade prestationen markant med 20 procent genom en minskning av blodlaktatkoncentrationer vid givna hjärtfrekvenser (HR), sålunda en förbättring av dels den aeroba laktattröskeln (LT) som den anaeroba laktattröskeln (AT). Fp 4 förbättrade prestationen med 15 procent genom att åka den givna sträckan under tidstestet på en snabbare tid vid andra tillfället. Fp 2 avverkade en 500m längre sträcka under andra rullskidtestet och förbättrade på så sätt sin prestation med 10 procent, fp fick dock en försämring av AT och hade högre blodlaktatkoncentrationer vid andra testtillfället. Fp 1 förbättrade LT men försämrade AT. Sammanfattningsvis, visar studien att ett 11-veckors träningsprogram bestående av mycket grenspecifik träning på högre intensiteter ledde till en klar prestationsförbättring hos två av fp, gällande alla parametrar som testades. De övriga två fp uppvisade vissa förbättringar men högre laktatkoncentrationer vid några mättillfällen.</p>

Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka huruvida en stor andel av intensiva grenspecifika pass utvecklade den aeroba kapaciteten hos motionärer som tränar inför Vasaloppet. Två testmetoder användes; ett maximalt laktattest på rullskidor utomhus och ett maximalt cykeltest på en cykelergometer inomhus. En utav fp genomförde ett tidstest på rullskidor på en given sträcka istället för laktattestet. Båda testerna genomfördes före och efter en 11-veckors träningsperiod som bestod av 41 procent medel- och högintensiva pass som genomfördes grenspecifikt. Det betyder intervaller på rullskidor eller i skidgång samt snabbdistanspass på rullskidor. Övriga 59 procent av träningspassen genomfördes på en lågintensiv nivå, vilket är mindre än de 70-80 procent som normalt förespråkas för en uthållighetsidrottare. 4 försökspersoner (fp) på motionsnivå deltog (4 män och 1 kvinna). Fp 3 förbättrade prestationen markant med 20 procent genom en minskning av blodlaktatkoncentrationer vid givna hjärtfrekvenser (HR), sålunda en förbättring av dels den aeroba laktattröskeln (LT) som den anaeroba laktattröskeln (AT). Fp 4 förbättrade prestationen med 15 procent genom att åka den givna sträckan under tidstestet på en snabbare tid vid andra tillfället. Fp 2 avverkade en 500m längre sträcka under andra rullskidtestet och förbättrade på så sätt sin prestation med 10 procent, fp fick dock en försämring av AT och hade högre blodlaktatkoncentrationer vid andra testtillfället. Fp 1 förbättrade LT men försämrade AT. Sammanfattningsvis, visar studien att ett 11-veckors träningsprogram bestående av mycket grenspecifik träning på högre intensiteter ledde till en klar prestationsförbättring hos två av fp, gällande alla parametrar som testades. De övriga två fp uppvisade vissa förbättringar men högre laktatkoncentrationer vid några mättillfällen.

Economic theory suggests that numerous factors are affecting entrepreneurship (demographic, political, cultural, geographical, and economical). There has been a lot of research on this topic, and many factors have been identified as individually related to the level of entrepreneurship in a region or country. However, despite the fact that a large number of factors have been identified as individually related to new firm formation (NFF), no one has been able to give a definitive an-swer as to which factors are the most important for increased NFF and economic growth (Calido-ni et al. 2007). And differences across countries remain unexplored. (Freytag &amp; Thurik 2007). This study takes a stab at both of these largely unexplored areas; trying to ascertain which vari-ables, out of 22 selected, appear to be the most relevant determinants of firm formation across countries today. Data on firm formation across countries from the WB‟s Entrepreneurship Survey was used to construct three measure of entrepreneurship. Stepwise regression was used to esti-mate the most significant variables. Three different measures of “entrepreneurship”, three mod-els, all yielded four significant variables in multivariate regression, some were overlapping be-tween the models for a total of eight variables found especially significant. One finding is particu-larly interesting in relation to Sweden; The cost of enforcing contracts was found to be one of the most important determinants of NFF, and since Sweden has relatively high costs of enforcing contracts; the combination of these two observation leads to a policy suggestion: If Sweden wants to increase NFF it should decrease the costs of enforcing contracts.

<p>Economic theory suggests that numerous factors are affecting entrepreneurship (demographic, political, cultural, geographical, and economical). There has been a lot of research on this topic, and many factors have been identified as individually related to the level of entrepreneurship in a region or country. However, despite the fact that a large number of factors have been identified as individually related to new firm formation (NFF), no one has been able to give a definitive an-swer as to which factors are the most important for increased NFF and economic growth (Calido-ni et al. 2007). And differences across countries remain unexplored. (Freytag & Thurik 2007). This study takes a stab at both of these largely unexplored areas; trying to ascertain which vari-ables, out of 22 selected, appear to be the most relevant determinants of firm formation across countries today. Data on firm formation across countries from the WB‟s Entrepreneurship Survey was used to construct three measure of entrepreneurship. Stepwise regression was used to esti-mate the most significant variables. Three different measures of “entrepreneurship”, three mod-els, all yielded four significant variables in multivariate regression, some were overlapping be-tween the models for a total of eight variables found especially significant. One finding is particu-larly interesting in relation to Sweden; The cost of enforcing contracts was found to be one of the most important determinants of NFF, and since Sweden has relatively high costs of enforcing contracts; the combination of these two observation leads to a policy suggestion: If Sweden wants to increase NFF it should decrease the costs of enforcing contracts.</p>

The study examines a particular aspect of the development of athletics in Scotland. The first organised clubs for the sole purpose of purely athletic competition in the contemporary sense, were cross country clubs known as harrier clubs. Through investigation of the origins, governance and the social structure of harriers clubs, the study connects these three fundamental themes in understanding sport within broader social historical study. In this study the origins of cross country running are set within a theoretical framework which recognises the nature of the urban and rural environments which defined the sport. The sport’s early growth and governance in Scotland is set alongside the broader ideological position of the ‘amateur’. Additionally, club organisation promoted the clubs as cultural institutions. Clubs served as a focus for male sociability and elevated the status of membership of the harriers. Membership meant more than just sporting engagement; it included social and civic standing. The purpose and function therefore of early clubs extended beyond participation. This study demonstrates how membership of cross country clubs conferred upon its members a status, establishing harriers clubs as important social institutions. This research shows how social networks within sport replicated society more broadly. The significance of the contribution of cross country clubs to the development of Scottish sporting culture is therefore implicit. Harriers clubs were the epitome of the complexity of sporting engagement representing both respectability and liminal behaviour.

Thesis PlanA (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Stout, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references.

The Taiwanese early intervention/early childhood special education (EI/ECSE) system is modeled after the federal legislation and practices of the U.S., incorporating specific cultural beliefs in Taiwan. Nonetheless, in EI/ECSE assessments, several challenges are presented, including: (a) limited resources and funding, (b) lack of reliable and valid instruments, (c) lack of progress monitoring for at-risk children, (d) no (or limited) active role for caregivers as informants in the assessment administration process, and (e) lack of communication between parents and professionals. The Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Inventory (ASQ: Inventory) is a dual-purpose tool that can be completed by early childhood practitioners and parents for developmental screening and progress monitoring. This instrument is considered a potential solution for the challenges in Taiwanese EI/ECSE assessments. Thus, the ASQ: Inventory was translated into Traditional Chinese following rigorous procedures. Its technical adequacy, cultural appropriateness, and utility were investigated in this study. Results indicated that the Traditional Chinese ASQ: Inventory was an instrument with solid internal consistency and construct validity and that it was well accepted by parent and professional participants. The instrument was also able to document progress in children's skills measured in chronological age intervals. Additionally, items in each domain were dispersed across a wide range of difficulty levels. When comparing between the two language versions using item response theory modeling, most items demonstrated invariant response patterns between the English and Traditional Chinese ASQ: Inventory. At the sample level, Taiwanese children scored significantly higher than U.S. children in problem-solving and personal-social, whereas U.S. children scored significantly higher in fine motor at the ages of 36, 42, and 48 months. The findings of this initial investigation suggested that the Traditional Chinese ASQ: Inventory should continue to be studied with the Taiwanese population. This instrument may help accelerate the referral and identification process in EI/ECSE and promote the concept of caregiver-completed assessments. By completing the questionnaire, caregivers may have increased awareness of child development and will be able to closely oversee a child's progress and focus on strengths in his/her learning profile. Future studies should focus on studying the technical adequacy of this instrument and exploring the development of a computerized ASQ: Inventory system.

This paper examines if increased microfinance intensity reduces the income inequality in 11 Latin American countries from 2005 to 2015. Gini coefficient was used as a measure of income inequality, while microfinance intensity was derived by dividing the number of active borrowers by the country's population. A panel data was constructed with 384 microfinance institutes present in the countries studied. To examine the relationship, a pooled OLS and a country clustered fixed-effects model was conducted using the specific-to-general method. Both methods showed a significant negative relationship between the Gini coefficient and microfinance intensity. However, it was a relatively small impact at -0.004% for every percent increase in microfinance, which confirms our hypothesis that a higher MFI participation leads to a decrease in income inequality. These results are in line with previous studies conducted, although, to our knowledge, this is the first macroeconomic framework study conducted on multiple Latin American countries at once.

The purpose of this study was to determine if cross-country is a desirable sport for the Utah High School Activities Association to include as an interscholastic sport. In order to determine practices, standards, and regulations of a desirable cross-country program, reasons for not including cross-country, and what the status of c ross-country is in Utah, questionnaires were sent to the states having a state sanctioned cross-country program , the states that do not have a state sanctioned cross-country program, and the track coaches in Utah. From the data received , the following conclusions were made: (a) cross-country is a growing sport, across the nation and in Utah, (b) the cross-country program which is being conducted in the high schools of Utah at the present time is following some of the examples set by the states having an approved program, (c) there are certain standards and regulations which are being followed by the states across the nation that should be incorporated into Utah's program if administered by the Utah High School Activities Association, and (d) the Utah High School Activities Association should approve cross-country as an interscholastic sport.