This thesis was undertaken to gain greater insights into ethnic collective action (ECA). A review of the literature revealed five gaps; a narrow definition of ECA, a failure to investigate ECA as an interactive process, a tendency to focus on external structures, a limited acknowledgement of the importance of internal heterogeneity and of intra-actions, and a lack of explanation of the role and importance of actors' worldviews. My research challenged the gaps by proposing that ECA is not only an outcome, but also part of an ongoing process. This thesis builds on elements of the theoretical approaches used by some earlier scholars. This study of ECA resulted from ethnographic fieldwork in Jordan for 10 months. My research focused on two case study groups, the Circassian and Dom. In addition, I gathered data about the setting and the interactions between Jordanian society, government and voluntary sector organisations (VSO), and the two case study groups. I argue that ethnography provided a methodological framework which allowed me to gain insights into how different factors interact and impact on ECA. This research makes empirical contributions concerning the situation of Circassians and Dom in Jordan as well as some general theoretical conclusions regarding ECA. The research revealed that ECA is a dynamic and complex process which is affected by numerous factors that do not directly impact on ECA processes, but instead it is the interaction and relationships between these factors that impact on ECA. The main factors involved in understanding the interactions that affect ECA were the level of inclusion extended by external actors to members of the two case study groups, state policies and programmes, the case study groups' levels of cohesion and leadership and the worldviews of external and internal actors.

Intangible heritage is a growing concept of emphasis in international communities. This study will define intangible heritage and focus on the performing arts in Taiwan. Inasmuch as Taiwanese Opera and Hand Puppetry are two of the most significant manifestations among others, research methods of qualitative interviews and non-participant observations will be used to gain an insight into their practices through investigating certain practitioners. This study will in particular explore organisational management and training approaches that ensure their artistry and skills are transmitted, contributing to the dissemination of intangible heritage. Furthermore, this study will inspect how the competent authorities determine the designation and registration of intangible heritage. Governmental schemes and their implementation for the safeguarding intangible heritage will be thoroughly examined, revealing the integrity and effectiveness of administrative systems, especially as the competent authorities are confronted by certain problems in the interpretation of intangible heritage, interaction with practitioners and controversy. These are inter-related, inter-influencing, and restrictive. In responding to these existing predicaments, coping strategies will be proposed as research outcomes.

This thesis charts the stakeholder communities, physical environment and daily life of two little studied Qādiriyya Sufi shrines associated with Shaikh ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī (1077 – 1165 AD), a 12th century Ḥanbalī Muslim theologian and the posthumous founder of one of the oldest Sufi orders in Islam. The first shrine is based in Baghdad and houses his burial chamber; and the second shrine, on the outskirts of the city of ‘Aqra in the Kurdish region of northern Iraq, is that of his son Shaikh ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (died 1206 AD). The latter was also known for lecturing in Ḥanbalī theology in the region, and venerated for this as well as his association with Shaikh ʿAbd al-Qādir. Driven by the research question “What shapes the identity orientations of these two Qādiriyya Sufi shrines in modern times?” the findings presented here are the result of field research carried out between November 2009 and February 2014. This field research revealed a complex context in which the two shrines existed and interacted, influenced by both Sufi and non-Sufi stakeholders who identified with and accessed these shrines to satisfy a variety of spiritual and practical needs, which in turn influenced the way each considered and viewed the two shrines from a number of orientations. These overlapping orientations include the Qādirī Sufi entity and the resting place of its patron saint; the orthodox Sunnī mosque with its muftī-imams, who are employed by the Iraqi government; the local Shīʿa community’s neighbourhood saint’s shrine and its destination for spiritual and practical aid; and the local provider of welfare to the poor of the city (soup kitchen, funeral parlour and electricity-generation amongst other services). The research findings also revealed a continuously changing and adapting Qādirī Sufi scene not immune from the national and regional socio-religio-political environments in which the two shrines exist: a non-Sufi national political class vying to influence and manipulate these shrines for their own purposes; and powerful national sectarian factions jostling to do the same. The mixture of stakeholders using and associating with the two shrines were found to be influential shapers of these entities, both physically and spiritually. Through encountering and interacting with each other, most stakeholders contributed to maintaining and rejuvenating the two shrines, but some also sought to adapt and change them driven by their particular orientation’s perspective.