This study explores the longitudinal changes among a sample of early adolescent girls in China throughout their transition from primary to junior high school. Early adolescence is a time of multiple transitions and is associated with a range of mental health outcomes in Western literature. This study will be the first to examine developmental changes in early adolescence among Chinese girls. A sample of 425 Chinese girls completed a self‐report questionnaire at three time points: the end of primary school, the start of the first year of junior high, and the end of the first year of junior high. The questionnaire comprised a range of measures relating to bodily changes, puberty, and gender issues, social changes in family, peers and school, and a series of standardised measures of mental health including: life satisfaction, self‐esteem, psychosomatic symptoms, loneliness, anxiety, depression, and coping. Results were analysed using ANOVA to examine longitudinal changes in measures. Following an overview of the interrelations between all the variables in this study using One‐way ANOVA, longitudinal results were reported in three chapters: physical changes, social changes, and mental health. Findings relating to physical growth highlighted the co‐occurrence of pubertal development and school transition. Significant increases in body dissatisfaction and social comparisons of physical appearance were identified, indicating girls’ growing self‐consciousness about their physical changes. Specifically, apart from weight concerns, an interesting finding of this study was that girls in this study reported consistently higher and significantly growing concerns about their height stature. A significant decline in positive feelings of gender typing was also identified. In terms of social development, there were no longitudinal changes in the overall quality of attachment with parents or peers, as well as peer norms, suggesting that although variance exists across individuals, these constructs remained longitudinally stable in this sample. On the other hand, a significant decline was found in parental involvement. In contrast to the negative outcomes reported widely in Western literature following the primary to middle school transition, this study revealed an overall positive school transition experience. To be specific, overall school climate was reported to be more positive in junior high school, girls’ personal goals and school behaviours were improved longitudinally, and school transition problems were significantly smaller than expected prior to the transition. Analysis of developmental changes in mental health revealed no changes in global life satisfaction and depression. However, self‐esteem in general significantly reduced over time; simultaneously and interestingly, psychosomatic health, loneliness, and overall anxiety significantly improved after the transition. Furthermore, longitudinally girls adopted a wider range of coping strategies to deal with stressful events, although both the selection and efficacy evaluation varied across coping strategies among individuals. This study is the first to explore Chinese girls’ development during early adolescence. Developmental trends are established in Chinese adolescent girls’ physical, social, and psychological domains. Despite evidence consistent with the universalities of this life stage as established in Western literature, this study also highlights cultural differences in the developmental experiences of Chinese adolescents. Taken together, the findings reveal a positive developmental phase with little evidence of increases in adaptation difficulties or mental health outcomes. These empirical findings are in contrast to Western research, which often highlights early adolescence as a time of adaptation difficulties. Overall, this study contributes to the literature on adolescent development. The role of culture and implications for future research and practice are also discussed.

Este estudo investigou o desenvolvimento e a influência dos ajustes posturais antecipatórios na performance de um movimento direcionado a um alvo em crianças com e sem DCD. Os participantes foram divididos de acordo com três faixas etárias [faixa etária (A) de 7-8 anos (média de 7.6 anos ± 0.6 ); faixa etária (B) de 9-10 anos (média de 9.7 anos ± 0.7); faixa etária (C) de 11-12 anos (média de 11.7 anos ± 0.5). Cada grupo foi formado por crianças com DCD e crianças de desenvolvimento típico. As com DCD foram identificadas através de um percentil igual ou inferior a 5 no Teste Movement ABC. As crianças com desenvolvimento típico foram identificadas como aquelas cujo escore apresentou-se igual ou superior a 30. As crianças foram orientadas a permanecer na posição em pé e executar um movimento direcionado a um alvo. Variáveis de tempo de reação, tempo de movimento e a amplitude dos ajustes posturais antecipatórios foram examinadas em função da idade. Os resultados indicaram que as crianças com DCD foram significativamente mais lentas que as crianças com desenvolvimento típico durante a iniciação e execução do movimento direcionado a um alvo e também apresentaram um maior deslocamento lateral do centro de pressão. A análise desenvolvimental mostrou que, à medida que a criança cresce, aumenta a estabilidade postural na direção lateral e reduz os tempos de reação e movimento. Porém, crianças com DCD não alcançaram o mesmo nível de performance em comparação as crianças de desenvolvimento típico. Quando atrasos hipotéticos de idade foram calculados a partir das equações da análise de regressão, as crianças mais velhas do grupo DCD mostraram aumento destes atrasos nos ajustes posturais e diminuição destes no tempo de reação e movimento. Estes resultados dão suporte à hipótese de que os ajustes posturais antecipatórios interferem na performance do movimento. / This study investigated the development and influences of anticipatory postural adjustments on the performance of a goal-directed movement in children with and without DCD. Participants were placed into one of three age bands [age band (A) with 7 and 8 years (mean age 7.6 years ± 0.6; age band (B) with 9 and 10 (mean age 9.7 ± 0.7); age band (C) with 11 and 12 years (mean age 11.7 ± 0.5)]. Each group consisted of children with DCD and typically developing children. Children with DCD were defined as those with scores at or below the 5thpercentile on Movement ABC Test. Typically developing children were those whose scores on the test were above the 30th percentile. The children were asked to stand in right position and perform a goal-directed movement. Reaction time, movement time and amplitude of postural adjustments were examined as a function of age. Results indicated that children with DCD were significantly slower than typically developing children during the initiation and execution of the goal-directed movement and also showed a larger lateral displacement of the center of pressure. Developmental analysis showed that, as children grow up, they increase their postural stability in lateral direction and decrease their reaction and movement time. However, children with DCD do not reach the same level of performance as compared to typically developing children. When hypothetical age delays were calculated by the equations in the regression analysis, older children in the DCD group showed increasing age delays of the postural adjustments but decreasing age delays in reaction and movement time. These results support the hypothesis that anticipatory adjustments interfere in movement performance.

The current investigation sought to differentiate between contrasting perspectives of body knowledge development by determining whether infants’ adult-like scanning of male and female bodies is dependent on relevant information from the face/head alone, the body alone, or a combination of both sources. Scanning patterns of 3.5-, 6.5-, and 9-month-olds (N = 80) in response to images that contained information relevant to sex classification in either the face/head or the body were examined. The results indicate that sex-specific scanning in the presence of only one source of relevant information (i.e., face/head or body) is present only at 9 months. Thus, although sex-specific scanning of bodies emerges as early as 3.5 months, information from both faces/heads and bodies is required until sometime between 6.5 and 9 months of age. These findings constrain theories of the development of social perception by documenting the complex interplay between body and face/head processing early in life

Este estudo investigou o desenvolvimento e a influência dos ajustes posturais antecipatórios na performance de um movimento direcionado a um alvo em crianças com e sem DCD. Os participantes foram divididos de acordo com três faixas etárias [faixa etária (A) de 7-8 anos (média de 7.6 anos ± 0.6 ); faixa etária (B) de 9-10 anos (média de 9.7 anos ± 0.7); faixa etária (C) de 11-12 anos (média de 11.7 anos ± 0.5). Cada grupo foi formado por crianças com DCD e crianças de desenvolvimento típico. As com DCD foram identificadas através de um percentil igual ou inferior a 5 no Teste Movement ABC. As crianças com desenvolvimento típico foram identificadas como aquelas cujo escore apresentou-se igual ou superior a 30. As crianças foram orientadas a permanecer na posição em pé e executar um movimento direcionado a um alvo. Variáveis de tempo de reação, tempo de movimento e a amplitude dos ajustes posturais antecipatórios foram examinadas em função da idade. Os resultados indicaram que as crianças com DCD foram significativamente mais lentas que as crianças com desenvolvimento típico durante a iniciação e execução do movimento direcionado a um alvo e também apresentaram um maior deslocamento lateral do centro de pressão. A análise desenvolvimental mostrou que, à medida que a criança cresce, aumenta a estabilidade postural na direção lateral e reduz os tempos de reação e movimento. Porém, crianças com DCD não alcançaram o mesmo nível de performance em comparação as crianças de desenvolvimento típico. Quando atrasos hipotéticos de idade foram calculados a partir das equações da análise de regressão, as crianças mais velhas do grupo DCD mostraram aumento destes atrasos nos ajustes posturais e diminuição destes no tempo de reação e movimento. Estes resultados dão suporte à hipótese de que os ajustes posturais antecipatórios interferem na performance do movimento. / This study investigated the development and influences of anticipatory postural adjustments on the performance of a goal-directed movement in children with and without DCD. Participants were placed into one of three age bands [age band (A) with 7 and 8 years (mean age 7.6 years ± 0.6; age band (B) with 9 and 10 (mean age 9.7 ± 0.7); age band (C) with 11 and 12 years (mean age 11.7 ± 0.5)]. Each group consisted of children with DCD and typically developing children. Children with DCD were defined as those with scores at or below the 5thpercentile on Movement ABC Test. Typically developing children were those whose scores on the test were above the 30th percentile. The children were asked to stand in right position and perform a goal-directed movement. Reaction time, movement time and amplitude of postural adjustments were examined as a function of age. Results indicated that children with DCD were significantly slower than typically developing children during the initiation and execution of the goal-directed movement and also showed a larger lateral displacement of the center of pressure. Developmental analysis showed that, as children grow up, they increase their postural stability in lateral direction and decrease their reaction and movement time. However, children with DCD do not reach the same level of performance as compared to typically developing children. When hypothetical age delays were calculated by the equations in the regression analysis, older children in the DCD group showed increasing age delays of the postural adjustments but decreasing age delays in reaction and movement time. These results support the hypothesis that anticipatory adjustments interfere in movement performance.

Este estudo investigou o desenvolvimento e a influência dos ajustes posturais antecipatórios na performance de um movimento direcionado a um alvo em crianças com e sem DCD. Os participantes foram divididos de acordo com três faixas etárias [faixa etária (A) de 7-8 anos (média de 7.6 anos ± 0.6 ); faixa etária (B) de 9-10 anos (média de 9.7 anos ± 0.7); faixa etária (C) de 11-12 anos (média de 11.7 anos ± 0.5). Cada grupo foi formado por crianças com DCD e crianças de desenvolvimento típico. As com DCD foram identificadas através de um percentil igual ou inferior a 5 no Teste Movement ABC. As crianças com desenvolvimento típico foram identificadas como aquelas cujo escore apresentou-se igual ou superior a 30. As crianças foram orientadas a permanecer na posição em pé e executar um movimento direcionado a um alvo. Variáveis de tempo de reação, tempo de movimento e a amplitude dos ajustes posturais antecipatórios foram examinadas em função da idade. Os resultados indicaram que as crianças com DCD foram significativamente mais lentas que as crianças com desenvolvimento típico durante a iniciação e execução do movimento direcionado a um alvo e também apresentaram um maior deslocamento lateral do centro de pressão. A análise desenvolvimental mostrou que, à medida que a criança cresce, aumenta a estabilidade postural na direção lateral e reduz os tempos de reação e movimento. Porém, crianças com DCD não alcançaram o mesmo nível de performance em comparação as crianças de desenvolvimento típico. Quando atrasos hipotéticos de idade foram calculados a partir das equações da análise de regressão, as crianças mais velhas do grupo DCD mostraram aumento destes atrasos nos ajustes posturais e diminuição destes no tempo de reação e movimento. Estes resultados dão suporte à hipótese de que os ajustes posturais antecipatórios interferem na performance do movimento. / This study investigated the development and influences of anticipatory postural adjustments on the performance of a goal-directed movement in children with and without DCD. Participants were placed into one of three age bands [age band (A) with 7 and 8 years (mean age 7.6 years ± 0.6; age band (B) with 9 and 10 (mean age 9.7 ± 0.7); age band (C) with 11 and 12 years (mean age 11.7 ± 0.5)]. Each group consisted of children with DCD and typically developing children. Children with DCD were defined as those with scores at or below the 5thpercentile on Movement ABC Test. Typically developing children were those whose scores on the test were above the 30th percentile. The children were asked to stand in right position and perform a goal-directed movement. Reaction time, movement time and amplitude of postural adjustments were examined as a function of age. Results indicated that children with DCD were significantly slower than typically developing children during the initiation and execution of the goal-directed movement and also showed a larger lateral displacement of the center of pressure. Developmental analysis showed that, as children grow up, they increase their postural stability in lateral direction and decrease their reaction and movement time. However, children with DCD do not reach the same level of performance as compared to typically developing children. When hypothetical age delays were calculated by the equations in the regression analysis, older children in the DCD group showed increasing age delays of the postural adjustments but decreasing age delays in reaction and movement time. These results support the hypothesis that anticipatory adjustments interfere in movement performance.

Theoretical models specify that anxiety aggregates in families. Research confirmed maternal anxiety as a predictor of childhood anxiety; however, very little evidence exists in support of paternal anxiety's role in child anxiety as well as about potentially reciprocal relationships between parental and child anxiety. The parent-child anxiety transmission mechanisms are also not fully understood; the majority of previous research focuses on the child's acquisition of anxiety symptoms from a parent via cognitive processes. Recent integrative theoretical models propose that child emotion regulation processes might be involved in parent-child anxiety transmission. The current dissertation aimed to address these gaps in literature. Both studies utilized data from over 800 mothers, 400 fathers, and their children drawn from the longitudinal NICHD Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development. Measures of maternal anxiety, paternal anxiety, child anxiety, and child emotion dysregulation were collected over a nine-year period when children were between the ages of 6 and 15 years. Study I provided evidence of significant indirect effects from parental anxiety to child anxiety through child emotion dysregulation for both mother-child and the father-child relationships. Child emotion dysregulation was non-significant in the father-child path of a family model, despite significant direct effects. The results provide evidence for child emotion dysregulation as an underlying process of parent-child anxiety transmission. Study II provided evidence of significant bidirectional predictive links of maternal anxiety and child anxiety across ages 6, 8, 10, and 15 years tested in a mother-child cross-lagged path model. Significant predictive paths from paternal anxiety to child anxiety were found from ages 6 to 8 and a significant predictive path from child anxiety to paternal anxiety was found from age 10 to age 15 in a father-child cross-lagged model. Additional tests of family models confirmed that there were unique effects of both maternal and paternal anxiety on child anxiety over time. The results show the long-term impact of both maternal anxiety and paternal anxiety on child anxiety as well as child anxiety's reciprocal effects on parental anxiety. Both studies demonstrate the importance of both mothers and fathers in childhood anxiety etiology. / Doctor of Philosophy / Research has shown that anxiety might run in families, and that parental and child anxieties might reinforce each other. In research, most attention is paid to mothers and how their anxiety influences child anxiety, including how children learn their anxious experiencing from their mothers. Very little research has been dedicated to studying fathers and how their anxiety might impact their children. The current two studies of this dissertation wanted to better understand how maternal and paternal anxiety shape child anxiety over the years. Study I tested whether the way how children regulate their emotions is influenced by parental anxiety and whether it contributes to their own anxiety. The evidence shows both mother and father anxiety influence children's regulation of their emotions, and in turn, this contributes to child anxiety. Therefore, how children control their emotions impacts how parental anxiety shapes child anxiety. Study II tested whether parental anxiety influences child anxiety consistently over time as children become adolescents. Study II also tested whether child anxiety contributes to parental anxiety over the years. Results showed that maternal and child anxiety consistently foretold each other when children were at 8, 10, and 15 years old. The results for fathers were more complicated and showed that father anxiety likely influences child anxiety when children are younger, while child anxiety influences paternal anxiety when children are older, during their teenage years. Both studies highlighted showed the importance of both mother and father anxiety to better understand child anxiety.

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