D.Ing. / The use of dissolved air flotation (DAF) as a water clarification process has gained momentum over the past two decades. Despite its increased application there is a lack of information concerning the understanding of the underlying principles of the process. Plants are being designed based mainly on empirical guidelines, especially with respect to the bubble production system. Bubbles are generated in the DAF process when water, supersaturated with air under pressure, is released under atmospheric conditions. The efficiency of air dissolution and precipitation determines the quantity of air available for flotation and thus, to a large extent, the success of the whole DAF process. The first part of this thesis deals with a rational model for predicting the air transfer efficiency in packed saturators which are used in most modern DAF plants to dissolve air into water. The model assumes the Lewis-Whitman two-film theory for interfacial mass transfer and uses the Onda correlations to estimate the mass transfer coefficient. The model provides good insight into the effects of key design parameters on the air transfer efficiency. The experimental verification of the model required a method for predicting the saturator air composition and a technique to practically determine the air transfer efficiency in the packed bed of an operating saturator. Both methods are described in detail in this study. The verification of the mass transfer model showed a close agreement of experimental and theoretical results and the model thus provides a powerful tool for the design of packed saturators. The second part of the thesis deals with air precipitation and the quantity of air released after depressurization. Based on a literature review on this subject it was assumed that the air release is incomplete and that it would be a function of the operating conditions of the saturation system as well as of the design of the injection nozzle across which the pressure is released. Since the injection nozzles play an important role in the DAF process numerous experiments were carried out which measured the released air volume for different nozzle configurations and saturator pressures. The results of this study showed that the air release after depressurization is indeed incomplete and that it takes a long time for all the excess air to come out of solution. It was found that the efficiency with which the air was released is a function of the saturator pressure and the nozzle design. The experimental observations led to the formulation of a two-step air release model, which explains the precipitation process in terms of a slow and fast release step. The mathematical framework for quantification of the model is provided. Once the model is quantified it will be possible to compare the performance of different injection nozzles solely with regard to their design features and independent of any parameters influencing the air release downstream of the nozzle. This model may then help to further the understanding of the precipitation process and could lead to the development of some rational guidelines for nozzle design and prediction of nozzle performance.

The use of dissolved air flotation (DAF) for drinking water treatment has steadily grown in popularity in Atlantic Canada for the treatment of low turbidity water supplies with high levels of algae or dissolved organic matter. Runoff from high intensity rainfall events may cause a rapid increase in turbidity and dissolved organic matter in rivers and lakes used for drinking water. A technical evaluation of a DAF water treatment plant (WTP) was conducted to determine the contributing factors to clearwell turbidity increases resulting from increased raw water turbidity and colour during intense rainfall and runoff events. The effect of chemical and operational factors on treatment of a low turbidity and colour water source as well as a high turbidity and colour water source were examined, including coagulant dose, coagulation pH, polyaluminum chloride (PACl) coagulant basicity and DAF recycle rate. In response to deteriorating water quality, it was found that increased coagulant addition inadvertently caused the loss of coagulation pH control in a full-scale DAF WTP, resulting in potentially elevated dissolved aluminum residuals entering the clearwell. This would have led to excessive aluminum hydroxide precipitation in the clearwell, and resulted in turbidity increases above the acceptable limit of 0.2 NTU. Turbidity was found to be better removed, and dissolved aluminum residuals minimized, when coagulation pH was set to the pH of minimum aluminum solubility vs. a lower pH of 6.0 during bench-scale DAF testing. A higher dose of coagulant was required to produce optimal removal of turbidity and dissolved organics at the pH of minimum solubility. The difference in bench-scale DAF treatment performance was found to be minimal when comparing sulphated PACl coagulants with 50 and 70+ % basicity. Charge analysis parameters zeta potential and streaming current were found to have a strong correlation in bench-scale testing, though the relationship between the two was affected by the coagulation pH. The results suggest that utilizing streaming current for coagulant dose control at a full-scale WTP would be best accomplished by establishing a consistent relationship between raw water quality, pH and other factors with streaming current experimentally before relying streaming current targets for dose control. Equivalent or improved DAF efficacy for solid-liquid separation was found when the recycle rate was lowered from 12 to 6 % in bench-scale tests and 12 to 8% in full-scale tests. The results suggested that maintaining an optimum air:solids ratio improved treatment performance, possibly by providing adequate bubble contact opportunities while minimizing excess shearing of the sludge blanket. The most significant finding of this research was that maintaining the coagulation pH in WTPs utilizing PACl coagulants is of utmost importance during source water quality deterioration in order to optimize treatment performance as well as prevent excess dissolved and precipitated aluminum from entering a public drinking water supply.

The efficiency of flotation processes may be improved through an understanding of the flotation models. Two mathematical models, particle trajectory and mixing zone models, have been modified and used to describe flotation results obtained from a semi-continuous flotation rig. Two types of clay suspensions, kaolin and Wyoming bentonite, were used as representative raw materials treated with a cationic surfactant, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HT AB), and/or coagulants i.e. alum, ferric chloride and polyaluminium chloride (PAC). HT AB concentrations were varied in the range of I x 10-6 to 3 x 10-5 mol/L. Alum at a concentration of 40 mg/L, ferric chloride at 40 mg/L and PAC at 10 mg/L were the selected coagulant dosages to be used in flotation tests. For the clay-HT AB-coagulant system, a HT AB concentration of I x 10-s mol/L was used in the flotation tests. Suspension flow rate was chosen at 2 Llmin and recycle ratios were varied in the range of 6-40% at room temperature. Two categories, suspensions with and without flocs, have been considered. The trajectory model gave a good match even taking account of the decreases In flotation efficiency at high recycle ratios where flocs had been broken by shear gradients. This model included hydrodynamic and surface forces i.e. electrostatic, van der Waals and hydrophobic forces and was calculated by a Runge Kutta technique. The effect of the shear force on a size reduction was determined from particle size measurements (Lasentec apparatus) in a mixing tank and the results showed a decrease of floc sizes with increasing agitator speeds. Bubble zeta potentials obtained using a modified rectangular cell in a Rank Brothers' apparatus gave points of zero charge at concentrations of 1.61 x 10-9 mollL for HTAB, 1.69 x 10-8 mol/L for tetradecyltrimethylammonium (TTAB) and 2.37 x 10-7 mol/L for dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) at 2SoC respectively. Van der Waals and hydrophobic or hydration forces were obtained from contact angle measurements on solid surfaces. The hydrophobic forces were increased by increasing HT AB concentrations while the hydration effects occurred upon the addition of coagulants to the suspensions. A flocculation model using the extended-DLVO theory showed a good correlation when compared to experimental results. For the mixing zone model, an attachment efficiency for the aggregation of a particle and a bubble was proposed from a ratio between the energy barrier (E1) and the maximum free energy at equilibrium. When particle size is constant, the attachment efficiency values rise with increasing hydrophobic force levels. On the other hand, when floc sizes are increased, the attachment efficiencies are decreased due to the increase in the repulsive long range van der Waals force.

Conventional drinking water treatment consists of a coagulation, flocculation, gravity separation, filtration and disinfection processes each working individually but also as an interdependent system. One of the main reagents used for drinking water treatment are coagulants that destabilise the suspended particles which results in the formation of flocs. For many years, the coagulant of choice was aluminum sulphate, also know as alum. Alum has slowly been replaced by new coagulants, such as polyalumium sulphates and polyaluminum chlorides, because they yield more consistent plant performance than with alum over the wide temperature range experienced by Canadian treatment plants. Recent research has determined that the alum solubility envelop varied significantly in terms of pH range with temperature, thus cold temperature performance may be improved by adjusting the coagulation pH. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is now used at some water treatment plants to replace sedimentation because it is much more compact than gravity settling, and it is somewhat better than sedimentation for the removal of algae, organics and operation in cold temperatures. The objective of this thesis is to help operators and managers of drinking water treatment plants incorporating DAF by: a) investigating the cold water turbidity removals of DAF systems using alum, the most economical coagulant; and b) investigating the impact of DAF saturator pressure on the bubble sizes produced and floc removal. This first initiative is based on fairly recent research on the impact of pH on the cold-temperature aluminum solubility. It uses this knowledge about the impact of pH to evaluate DAF treatment of Ottawa River water in cold-water conditions using DAF batch tests. The effect of pH against final turbidity at cold temperatures was first evaluated by increasing the pH of the coagulated water, the higher pH helped attain good turbidity removals. For the coagulant dose tested, good turbidity removals were observed for both warm and cold waters at nearly the same pOH conditions. At room temperature the turbidity removals increase with both increasing flocculation G and flocculation time. While at cold temperatures, when aluminum flocs are known to be much more fragile, the turbidity removals appear to be independent of G and GT. The second initiative studied the relationship between floc size and bubble size in DAF systems by changing the DAF saturator pressure. Increasing the saturator pressure did not significantly decrease the mean bubble size. The flocs attach to bubbles that were significantly larger than the bubbles. The assessment of DAF efficiency based on the unitized effluent floc distribution proved inconclusive, it may be possible that the conditions resulting with the larger mean effluent floc size has a greater removal efficiency since it began with a smaller fraction of small flocs entering the flotation stage.

The dissolved air flotation (DAF) has been used in drinking water treatment for its excellent algae and natural organic matter (NOM) removal. DAF drinking water treatability test are often conducted in a DAF jar test apparatus. Although, DAF jar test studies showed that they were able to predict NOM removals at full-scale facilities well, they have not always been successful in predicting the turbidity removals. One possible reason of the DAF jar test inaccuracy results could be associated to the small jar diameter, which may create wall effects. Therefore, the first two objectives of this research are: a) to develop and test a new, larger diameter and larger volume batch bench-scale dissolved air flotation system (LB-DAF) to better simulate turbidity removals in drinking water applications; b) to confirm these results by comparing the LB-DAF and full-scale DAF turbidity removals for two other source waters. The raw water characteristics of the three plants were quite different and the testing was performed at different times of the year. The development/optimization of the LB-DAF evaluated the impact of different variables (i.e., mixing intensity, water depth/tank diameter ratio, impeller shape, saturator pressure and recycle ratio). The results showed that the LB-DAF predicted well the full-scale DAF turbidity removals at three water treatment plants, and these predictions were better than those of DAF jar tests. For the LB-DAF design and operational variables evaluated had a limited impact on the turbidity removals. The LB-DAF predicted well DAF full-scale turbidity removals regardless of water temperature. This is an indication of the robustness of the DAF system. Ballasted sedimentation (BS) is a compact coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation process combination that has become very popular because it is very compact and because it can handle large variations in raw water turbidity and NOM. The literature survey did not initially identify studies on the BS treatment of algal impacted waters, for which DAF is considered particularly suitable. Thus, the third main objective of this dissertation was to compare the efficiency of BS with that conventional gravity settling (CGS), and that of DAF for the treatment of an algal impacted water via jar tests. These comparisons were performed at the Belleville Water Treatment Plant using Bay of Quinte water, one of the most eutrophic zones of Lake Ontario. Unfortunately, a change of weather prior to the testing resulted in raw water samples with relatively low concentrations of algae and cyanobacteria. The testing showed that DAF and BS had very similar NOM, cyanobacteria/algae (chlorophyll a and phycocyanin) removals.; however, the BS required microsand addition, polymer addition and a slightly higher alum dose. Only for turbidity removal the DAF was somewhat superior. It is suggested that these comparison experiments be repeated with waters that are more impacted by algae and cyanobacteria.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a potencialidade de aplicação da Flotação por Ar Dissolvido (FAD) na redução da turbidez da água do Rio Gualaxo do Norte, o qual foi poluído por, pelo menos, 40 bilhões de litros de rejeito do processamento de minério de ferro após a ruptura da barragem de rejeitos da Samarco, em novembro de 2015. Com isto, o estudo visa determinar as condições ótimas de coagulação (dosagem e pH), floculação (gradiente médio de velocidade e tempo de floculação) e taxa de reciclo (percentual de mistura água-ar dissolvido), visando obter parâmetros satisfatórios de qualidade em termos de turbidez residual e eficiência de remoção turbidez para amostras compostas por variados valores de turbidez (419 NTU, 785 NTU 1412 NTU e 3517 NTU), a fim de se simular a resposta da FAD frente a eventuais variações na concentração de sólidos na água de estudo. Dentro do universo deste estudo, foi possível demonstrar que a elevada turbidez, a baixa hidrofobicidade e a elevada densidade das partículas minerais suspensas levou à redução da capacidade de flotação das microbolhas, resultando em uma fração de material sedimentado (em média 25%). Todavia, foi constatado que, em geral, o coagulante cloreto férrico foi eficiente na remoção de sólidos via FAD, promovendo, com 18% de taxa de reciclo, turbidez residual de 49 NTU para a amostra mais turva (de turbidez inicial 3517 NTU). O coagulante natural Tanfloc SL apresentou desempenho promissor, pois foi possível a clarificação das amostras altamente turvas (com até 1412 NTU) com a aplicação de uma diminuta dosagem (2,0 mg/L) e baixa taxa de reciclo (6%), resultando em turbidez residual próxima a 59 NTU. Além disto, o coagulante Tanfloc SL permitiu maior flotabilidade dos flocos, enquanto o coagulante cloreto férrico levou a maiores percentuais de sedimentação destes. Após o tratamento com o coagulante cloreto férrico, a concentração de ferro dissolvido na água foi elevada, inclusive a valores superiores ao limite estabelecido pela legislação. Em contrapartida, o coagulante Tanfloc SL manteve baixa concentração de metais dissolvidos na água, o que reforça a vantajosa aplicação de um coagulante natural e biodegradável. / This research project aimed to evaluate the viability of the application of the Dissolved Air Flotation (FAD) technique in the reduction of the River Gualaxo do Norte water turbidity, polluted by at least 40 billion liters of iron ore tailings after the rupture of the Samarco tailings dam, in November of 2015. Therefore, this study\'s purpose is to determine the optimum coagulation conditions (dose and pH), flocculation (mean velocity gradient and flocculation time) and recycle rate (water-dissolved air mixture percentage) in order to obtain satisfactory quality parameters in terms of residual turbidity and removal efficiency for samples presenting varying turbidity values (1412 NTU 419 NTU 785 NTU and 3517 NTU) aiming to simulate the DAF reponse to any variations in solids concentration. Within the universe of this study, it was possible to demonstrate that the high turbidity, and especially the high density of the suspended mineral particles, led to the reduction of the flotation capacity of the microbubbles, resulting in a sediment fraction (25% - mean value). However, it was found that, in general, the coagulant ferric chloride was effective in removal of solids via FAD, promoting with 18% recycle rate, residual turbidity of 49 NTU for the most turbid water sample (initial turbidity 3517 NTU). The natural coagulant Tanfloc SL presented a favorable performance, as it was possible to clarify highly turbid samples (up to 1412 NTU) using a low dosage (2.0 mg / L) and low recycle rate (6%), resulting in in residual turbidity close to 59 NTU. In addition, the coagulant Tanfloc SL allowed greater flotation of the flocs, while the coagulant ferric chloride led to higher sedimentation percentages. With the use of ferric chloride as coagulant the iron concentration dissolved in the water was elevated, even to values higher than the limit established by the legislation. In contrast, the coagulant Tanfloc SL maintained a low concentration of dissolved metals in the water, which reinforces the advantageous application of a natural and biodegradable organic coagulant.

Produced water is one of the major by products of oil and gas exploitation which is produced in large amounts up to 80% of the waste stream. Oil and grease concentration in produced water is the key parameter that is used for compliance monitoring, because it is easy to measure. For Canadian offshore operations, the current standard is a 30-day volume weighted average oil-in-water concentration in discharged produced water not exceeding 30 mg/L. Treatment of produced water may therefore be required in order to meet pre-disposal regulatory limits. The measurement of oil in produced water is important for both process control and reporting to regulatory authorities. Without the specification of a method, reported concentrations of oil in produced water can mean little, as there are many techniques and methods available for making this measurement, but not all are suitable in a specific application. The first part of this study focused on selecting a suitable analytical method for oil and grease measurement in oil field produced water. Petroleum ether was found to offer a comparative dissolution of crude oil as dichloromethane and hexane; it was therefore used as the solvent of choice for the UV-Vis spectrophotometric analysis of oil and grease in synthetic produced water. Results from the UV-Vis spectrophotometric and FTIR spectrometric analytical methods were found to be comparable; it confirmed that UV-Vis spectrometry could potentially serve as an alternative method for measuring oil and grease in oil field produced water. However, while the UV-Vis method may have limitations in measuring oil and grease concentrations below 30 mg/L, the FT-IR method was found to be equally efficient at measuring both high and low oil and grease concentrations. Dissolved air flotation (DAF) was the primary treatment technology investigated in this study for removing oil and grease from synthetic produced water. By itself, DAF achieved less than 70% oil and grease (OG) removal, and was not able to achieve a clarified effluent OG concentration of 30 mg/L required for regulatory discharge limits. At an optimum condition of 20 mg/L ferric chloride (FeCl3) at pH 8 (70.6% OG removal), coagulation was found to significantly improve the performance of the DAF unit (p < 0.05). At the optimum conditions of 100 mg/L PAC dose, pH 8 and a mixing time of 10 minutes (77.5% OG removal) and 300 mg/L OC dose, pH 8 and a mixing time of 10 minutes (78.1% OG removal), adsorption was also found to significantly improve the performance of the DAF unit (p < 0.05 in both cases). Adsorption with organoclay was recommended as the best pre-treatment for optimizing the performance of DAF in removing oil and grease from offshore oil field produced water. The bench-scale experiments showed that turbidity removal results were consistent with the OG removal results. Without pre-treatment, DAF achieved significant removal of benzene from produced water due to the volatile nature of benzene. Therefore comparable levels of benzene removal was observed by the DAF, FeCl3/DAF, PAC/DAF and OC/DAF treatment schemes; 79.3 %, 86.6 %, 86.5 %, 83.5% respectively. Finally, as benzene is known to be carcinogenic to humans, this study recommends the incorporation auxiliary equipment in its design, for the treatment of the off-gas (VOCs, particularly BTEX) released during the removal of dissolved oil from the oil field produced water.

Thesis (MTech (Chemical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / In the recent past, the poultry industry in South Africa has grown due to an increased demand of poultry products as a result of population growth and improved living standards. Furthermore, this has led to poultry slaughterhouses generating high strength wastewater which is laden with a high concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants from the slaughtering process and sanitation of equipment and facilities. As a result, South Africa has promulgated restrictions and a set of quality standards for effluent discharged into the environment to minimize ecological degradation and human health impact. Hence, there is a need for improved Poultry Slaughterhouse Wastewater (PSW) pre-treatment prior to either discharge into municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) or on-site secondary treatment processes such as anaerobic digesters. Additionally, amongst the pre-treatment methods for Fats, Oil and Grease (FOG) laden wastewater, flotation remains the most popular with Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) system being the most applied. However, modelling and optimization of a biological DAF system has never been attempted before in particular for a bioflocculant supported DAF (BioDAF) for PSW pre-treatment. Process modelling and optimization involves process adjustment to optimize influential parameters. In this study, Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to develop an empirical model of a BioDAF for pre-treatment of PSW, for which a bioflocculant producer including production conditions, flocculant type and its floc formation mechanism, were identified. Twenty-one (n = 21) microbial strains were isolated from the PSW and their flocculation activity using kaolin clay suspension (4g/L) was quantified, with a mutated Escherichia coli (mE.coli) [accession number LT906474.1], having the highest flocculation activity even in limited nutrient conditions; hence, it was used for further analysis in other experiments. Furthermore, the optimum conditions for bioflocculant production achieved using RSM were pH of 6.5 and 36°C conditions which induced instantaneous bioflocculant production with the highest flocculation activity. The bioflocculant produced by the mE.coli showed the presence of carboxyl/amine, alkyne and hydroxyl functional groups, which was indicative that the bioflocculant contained both polysaccharides and some amino acids.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a potencialidade de aplicação da Flotação por Ar Dissolvido (FAD) na redução da turbidez da água do Rio Gualaxo do Norte, o qual foi poluído por, pelo menos, 40 bilhões de litros de rejeito do processamento de minério de ferro após a ruptura da barragem de rejeitos da Samarco, em novembro de 2015. Com isto, o estudo visa determinar as condições ótimas de coagulação (dosagem e pH), floculação (gradiente médio de velocidade e tempo de floculação) e taxa de reciclo (percentual de mistura água-ar dissolvido), visando obter parâmetros satisfatórios de qualidade em termos de turbidez residual e eficiência de remoção turbidez para amostras compostas por variados valores de turbidez (419 NTU, 785 NTU 1412 NTU e 3517 NTU), a fim de se simular a resposta da FAD frente a eventuais variações na concentração de sólidos na água de estudo. Dentro do universo deste estudo, foi possível demonstrar que a elevada turbidez, a baixa hidrofobicidade e a elevada densidade das partículas minerais suspensas levou à redução da capacidade de flotação das microbolhas, resultando em uma fração de material sedimentado (em média 25%). Todavia, foi constatado que, em geral, o coagulante cloreto férrico foi eficiente na remoção de sólidos via FAD, promovendo, com 18% de taxa de reciclo, turbidez residual de 49 NTU para a amostra mais turva (de turbidez inicial 3517 NTU). O coagulante natural Tanfloc SL apresentou desempenho promissor, pois foi possível a clarificação das amostras altamente turvas (com até 1412 NTU) com a aplicação de uma diminuta dosagem (2,0 mg/L) e baixa taxa de reciclo (6%), resultando em turbidez residual próxima a 59 NTU. Além disto, o coagulante Tanfloc SL permitiu maior flotabilidade dos flocos, enquanto o coagulante cloreto férrico levou a maiores percentuais de sedimentação destes. Após o tratamento com o coagulante cloreto férrico, a concentração de ferro dissolvido na água foi elevada, inclusive a valores superiores ao limite estabelecido pela legislação. Em contrapartida, o coagulante Tanfloc SL manteve baixa concentração de metais dissolvidos na água, o que reforça a vantajosa aplicação de um coagulante natural e biodegradável. / This research project aimed to evaluate the viability of the application of the Dissolved Air Flotation (FAD) technique in the reduction of the River Gualaxo do Norte water turbidity, polluted by at least 40 billion liters of iron ore tailings after the rupture of the Samarco tailings dam, in November of 2015. Therefore, this study\'s purpose is to determine the optimum coagulation conditions (dose and pH), flocculation (mean velocity gradient and flocculation time) and recycle rate (water-dissolved air mixture percentage) in order to obtain satisfactory quality parameters in terms of residual turbidity and removal efficiency for samples presenting varying turbidity values (1412 NTU 419 NTU 785 NTU and 3517 NTU) aiming to simulate the DAF reponse to any variations in solids concentration. Within the universe of this study, it was possible to demonstrate that the high turbidity, and especially the high density of the suspended mineral particles, led to the reduction of the flotation capacity of the microbubbles, resulting in a sediment fraction (25% - mean value). However, it was found that, in general, the coagulant ferric chloride was effective in removal of solids via FAD, promoting with 18% recycle rate, residual turbidity of 49 NTU for the most turbid water sample (initial turbidity 3517 NTU). The natural coagulant Tanfloc SL presented a favorable performance, as it was possible to clarify highly turbid samples (up to 1412 NTU) using a low dosage (2.0 mg / L) and low recycle rate (6%), resulting in in residual turbidity close to 59 NTU. In addition, the coagulant Tanfloc SL allowed greater flotation of the flocs, while the coagulant ferric chloride led to higher sedimentation percentages. With the use of ferric chloride as coagulant the iron concentration dissolved in the water was elevated, even to values higher than the limit established by the legislation. In contrast, the coagulant Tanfloc SL maintained a low concentration of dissolved metals in the water, which reinforces the advantageous application of a natural and biodegradable organic coagulant.

Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the Degree of M.Tech: Chemical Engineering, M. L. Sultan Technikon, 2001. / Historically inorganic coagulants were the coagulants of choice for OAF treatment of potable water. Water treatment practitioners using OAF technology preferred ferric chloride, an inorganic coagulant. Ferric chloride formed light, floatable floes at relatively low flocculation intensities and detention times. The inorganic coagulant was also more forgiving during incidents of overdosing and raw water and pH variability / M