Thesis (MTech (Electrical Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2009 / Recently, due to concerns about the liberalization of electricity supply, deregulation and global impact on the environment, securing a reliable power supply has become an important social need worldwide To ensure this need is fulfilled, detailed investigations and developments are In progress on power distribution systems protection and the monitoring of apparatus which Is part of the thesis. The main objective of a protection schemes is mainly to keep the power system stable by isolating only the affected components or the section of the electricity network in which the fault has developed while allowing the rest of the network to continue operating. It is important to note that the protection equipment does not prevent faults from occurring, but it limits the damaging effect of the fault and protects other healthy equipment. This is only achieved if the protection system of the electrical network involved complies with the requirements and purpose of the electrical protection standards. These requirements include the Operational speed, Reliability, Security and Sensitivity. In conventional substations that are still existing Within the utilities networks, a number of long cables are then used to complete the links between substation equipment in order for them to communicate (hardwired). This method is uneconomical and is being phased out completely in the near future. Over the last few years a new standard for substation automation communication has been developed Within the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the IEC 61850. This standard defines the integration requirements of multi-vendor compliant relays and other lED's for multiple protection schemes as well as control and automation techniques. In this particular thesis, Distribution protection is the area of interest, particularly the application of Time and Overcurrent protection schemes. A look into different protection alternatives and the application of new technologies for Electrical Power Distribution Systems that unify protection and control units so that they can be incorporated into Intelligent Substation as opposed to the most existing (conventional substation) is analyzed. The proposed algorithm has been verified through simulations of the CPUT and Eureka three phase power distribution systems. A testing Lab is also part of this thesis and Is meant for experiments as well as simulation performance in order to gain knowledge and skills for designing and engineer substations with lEG 61850 standards equiprnents. The results indicate that the reduction of copper wiring cable has increased and the communication speed has improved and simplified.

Increased Distributed Generation (DG) presence on radial distribution feeders is becoming a common trend. The existing Overcurrent Protection (OCP) scheme on such feeders consists mainly of overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs) such as fuses and reclosers. When DG is placed on the remote end of a 3-phase lateral, the radial configuration of the feeder is lost. As a result, OCP issues may arise which lead to permanent outages even when the fault is temporary. This thesis presents a new approach that revises the existing OCP scheme of a radial feeder to address the presence of DG. The fuses on the laterals with DGs are removed and multifunction recloser/relays (MFRs) are added to address three specific OCP issues; fuse fatigue, nuisance fuse blowing, and fuse misoperation. The new approach requires no communication medium, provides backup protection for the DG unit, and allows the remaining laterals to retain their existing protective devices. The results are reported using the IEEE 34 node radial test feeder to validate the new approach and the IEEE 123 node radial test feeder to generalize the approach. The new approach completely mitigated the fuse misoperation and nuisance fuse blowing issues and most of the fuse fatigue issues that were present on the radial test feeders. Specifically, the approach demonstrates that coordination between the existing protection devices on radial distribution feeders is maintained in the presence of DG.

Ce travail est lié au système de protection des réseaux de distribution. Les réseaux radiaux dedistribution peuvent être protégés simplement par une protection placée en tête du départ. Maisl'exploitation future des réseaux de distribution, qui se transforment en réseaux intelligents,flexibles et adaptatifs, va sûrement nécessiter une protégeabilité plus complexe. Parconséquent, un nouveau plan de protection pourrait être nécessaire afin d’augmenter la fiabilitédu réseau de distribution et le taux de productions décentralisées. Il pourrait inclure plusieursprotections déployées sur un départ. Le but principal de ce travail est d'étudier comment lesprotections pourraient agir (sur quel genre de grandeurs les protections reposeront, quellecoordination faut-il choisir) et d'analyser les limites de ces nouvelles protections. En déployantplusieurs protections qui divisent le départ en des zones plus petites, le plan de protectionproposé, reposant sur une formulation modifié et optimisée, proche de celle des protections dedistance classiques, déconnectera ainsi moins de consommateurs et de producteurs lors del’apparition de défauts. Cela devrait réduire le temps de coupures brèves et de diminuerl'énergie non fournie. Ce manuscrit présente une solution pour les réseaux HTA radiaux faceaux défauts monophasés. / This work is related to the protection system of distribution networks. Radial MV distributiongrids can be protected by a single protection relay located at the beginning of the feeder. Butthe future operation mode of distribution grids turning into Smart Grids should impose morecomplex operations. Therefore a more advanced protection scheme could be needed, in orderto improve the reliability of the distribution network and to enhance the DG interconnection. Itcould include several protection relays in series on a same MV feeder. The main purpose of thiswork is to investigate how the protection relays could work (on which measurements should theprotection decisions be based, how to coordinate the relays without communication) andanalyze the limits of such new protection schemes. Since the goal is to insert severalprotections that divide the grid into smaller sections, the proposed protection system, based onan adapted and optimized formula, inspired by distance relays algorithm, would thereforedisconnect fewer loads and producers when faults occur in the MV network. This should reducethe clearing operation time and Energy Not Supplied criteria. This paper presents a solution fora radial MV grid facing single-phased faults.

sensíveis têm requerido elevados níveis de confiabilidade dos sistemas de distribuição de energia. Em meio a este cenário, a proliferação de geradores distribuídos conectados próximos às cargas evidencia o surgimento de um novo paradigma na produção e utilização da energia elétrica. No entanto, muitos problemas decorrem do fato de que os sistemas de distribuição não foram projetados para incorporar unidades geradoras de energia. A estratégia completa de controle e proteção é definida sob o pressuposto do fluxo unidirecional de potência nos alimentadores. Um dos conflitos mais imediatos que surgem com a penetração da geração distribuída é relacionado ao sistema de proteção, resultado da alteração na magnitude das correntes de falta. Algumas consequências são a perda da sensibilidade e da coordenação da proteção. Se contornados estes problemas, a geração distribuída tem potencial para exercer impacto positivo sobre a confiabilidade, em especial no suporte ao restabelecimento da carga em situações de contingência. Tendo em vista estes fatores, a metodologia proposta adota uma perspectiva multicriterial para otimizar o desempenho dos sistemas de distribuição na presença da geração distribuída. Os indicadores SAIDI, SAIFI e MAIFI são formulados como modelos de otimização que possibilitam a adequação do sistema de proteção às condições operacionais impostas pela geração distribuída. Dentre os aspectos considerados incluem-se a alocação, a seletividade e a coordenação dos dispositivos de proteção. A alocação de chaves de manobras para reconfiguração do alimentador é a estratégia adotada para maximizar o efeito positivo da geração distribuída sobre a confiabilidade. As soluções dos modelos definem os locais de instalação dos dispositivos de proteção e manobras, e os ajustes dos religadores de forma independente para as unidades de fase e terra. A minimização simultânea dos indicadores é formulada como um problema de Programação Linear Inteira Mista por Metas, visando o balanço ótimo entre a redução das interrupções momentâneas e sustentadas nos sistemas de distribuição. Os modelos analíticos dos indicadores são solucionados utilizando um pacote de otimização de uso geral, baseado no método de Branch-and-Bound. A metodologia é avaliada a partir de um estudo de caso, considerando níveis crescentes de penetração da geração distribuída em um alimentador de distribuição real. Os modelos matemáticos são aplicados em cenários distintos de operação do sistema, associados à diferentes restrições econômicas. Os resultados possibilitam a avaliação do impacto da geração distribuída no restabelecimento e na proteção do sistema de forma independente. / The increasing automation of industrial processes and the sensitivity of electronic loads have required high levels of power distribution system’s reliability. In this scenario, the widespread use of distributed generators connected near the loads shows the emergence of a new paradigm in electric energy production and application. However, many problems arise from the fact that the distribution systems were not designed to deal with power generating units. The complete control and protection strategy is defined under the assumption of radial power flow. One of the most immediate conflicts that arise with the penetration of distributed generation is related to the protection system, a result of the change in fault currents magnitude. Some consequences are loss of protection coordination and sensitivity. By addressing these problems, distributed generation has the potential to have a positive impact on distribution reliability, especially in supporting load restoration during system’s contingencies. Considering these factors, the proposed methodology uses a multi-criteria approach to optimize the overall performance of distribution systems in the presence of distributed generation. The reliability indices SAIDI, SAIFI and MAIFI are formulated as optimization models that allow adequacy of the protection system in relation to the operating conditions imposed by distributed generation. The aspects considered include the allocation, selectivity and coordination of protective devices. The allocation of sectionalizing switches for feeder restoration is the strategy to maximize the positive impact of distributed generation on the system reliability. The model solutions provide the protective devices and switches locations, as well as reclosers’ settings for phase and ground units, independently. Reliability indices minimization is formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Goal Programming problem, in order to establish the optimal trade-off between reducing momentary and sustained interruptions in distribution systems. The analytical models are solved using a general-use optimization package based on the Branch-and-Bound method. The methodology is evaluated through a case study considering increasing levels of distributed generation penetration on a real distribution feeder. The proposed mathematical models are applied in different scenarios of system operation and under different economic constraints. The results allow the evaluation of the impact of distributed generation on restoration and protection of the test system.

Current trends in electric power consumption indicate an increasing use of dc in end-user equipment, such as computers and other electronic appliances used in households and offices. With a dc power system, ac/dc conversion within these loads can be avoided, and losses reduced. AC/DC conversion is instead centralized, and by using efficient, fully controllable power-electronic interfaces, high power quality for both ac and dc systems during steady state and ac grid disturbances can be obtained. Connection of back-up energy storage and small-size generation is also easier to realize in a dc power system. To facilitate practical application, it is important that the shift from ac to dc can be implemented with minimal changes. Results from measurements carried out on common household appliances show that most loads are able to operate with dc supply without any modifications. Furthermore, simple, and yet sufficiently accurate, load models have been derived using the measurement results. The models have been used for further analysis of the dc system, both in steady state and during transients. AC microgrids have gained research interest during the last years. A microgrid is a part of power systems which can operate both connected to the ac grid, and autonomously in island mode when the loads are supplied from locally distributed resources. A low-voltage dc microgrid can be used to supply sensitive electronic loads, since it combines the advantages of using a dc supply for electronic loads, and using local generation to supply sensitive loads. An example of a commercial power system which can benefit from using a dc microgrid is data center. The lower losses due to fewer power conversion steps results in less heat which need to be cooled, and therefore the operation costs are lowered. To ensure reliable operation of a low-voltage dc microgrid, well-designed control and protection systems are needed. An adaptive controller is required to coordinate the different resources based on the load-generation balance in the microgrid, and status of the ac grid. The performance of the developed controller has been studied and evaluated through simulations. The results show that it is possible to extend use of the data center dc microgrid to also support a limited amount of ac loads close to the data center, for example an office building. A protection-system design for low-voltage dc microgrids has been proposed, and different protection devices and grounding methods have been presented. Moreover, different fault types and their impact on the system have been analyzed. The type of protection that can be used depends on the sensitivity of the components in the microgrid. Detection methods for different components have been suggested in order to achieve a fast and accurate fault clearing. An experimental small-scale dc power system has been used to supply different loads, both during normal and fault conditions. A three-phase two-level voltage source converter in series with a Buck converter was used to interconnect the ac and the dc power systems. Together the converters have large controllability, high power quality performance, and allow bi-directional power flow. This topology can preferably be used together with energy storage. The tests confirm the feasibility of using a dc power system to supply sensitive electronic loads. / QC 20100908

sensíveis têm requerido elevados níveis de confiabilidade dos sistemas de distribuição de energia. Em meio a este cenário, a proliferação de geradores distribuídos conectados próximos às cargas evidencia o surgimento de um novo paradigma na produção e utilização da energia elétrica. No entanto, muitos problemas decorrem do fato de que os sistemas de distribuição não foram projetados para incorporar unidades geradoras de energia. A estratégia completa de controle e proteção é definida sob o pressuposto do fluxo unidirecional de potência nos alimentadores. Um dos conflitos mais imediatos que surgem com a penetração da geração distribuída é relacionado ao sistema de proteção, resultado da alteração na magnitude das correntes de falta. Algumas consequências são a perda da sensibilidade e da coordenação da proteção. Se contornados estes problemas, a geração distribuída tem potencial para exercer impacto positivo sobre a confiabilidade, em especial no suporte ao restabelecimento da carga em situações de contingência. Tendo em vista estes fatores, a metodologia proposta adota uma perspectiva multicriterial para otimizar o desempenho dos sistemas de distribuição na presença da geração distribuída. Os indicadores SAIDI, SAIFI e MAIFI são formulados como modelos de otimização que possibilitam a adequação do sistema de proteção às condições operacionais impostas pela geração distribuída. Dentre os aspectos considerados incluem-se a alocação, a seletividade e a coordenação dos dispositivos de proteção. A alocação de chaves de manobras para reconfiguração do alimentador é a estratégia adotada para maximizar o efeito positivo da geração distribuída sobre a confiabilidade. As soluções dos modelos definem os locais de instalação dos dispositivos de proteção e manobras, e os ajustes dos religadores de forma independente para as unidades de fase e terra. A minimização simultânea dos indicadores é formulada como um problema de Programação Linear Inteira Mista por Metas, visando o balanço ótimo entre a redução das interrupções momentâneas e sustentadas nos sistemas de distribuição. Os modelos analíticos dos indicadores são solucionados utilizando um pacote de otimização de uso geral, baseado no método de Branch-and-Bound. A metodologia é avaliada a partir de um estudo de caso, considerando níveis crescentes de penetração da geração distribuída em um alimentador de distribuição real. Os modelos matemáticos são aplicados em cenários distintos de operação do sistema, associados à diferentes restrições econômicas. Os resultados possibilitam a avaliação do impacto da geração distribuída no restabelecimento e na proteção do sistema de forma independente. / The increasing automation of industrial processes and the sensitivity of electronic loads have required high levels of power distribution system’s reliability. In this scenario, the widespread use of distributed generators connected near the loads shows the emergence of a new paradigm in electric energy production and application. However, many problems arise from the fact that the distribution systems were not designed to deal with power generating units. The complete control and protection strategy is defined under the assumption of radial power flow. One of the most immediate conflicts that arise with the penetration of distributed generation is related to the protection system, a result of the change in fault currents magnitude. Some consequences are loss of protection coordination and sensitivity. By addressing these problems, distributed generation has the potential to have a positive impact on distribution reliability, especially in supporting load restoration during system’s contingencies. Considering these factors, the proposed methodology uses a multi-criteria approach to optimize the overall performance of distribution systems in the presence of distributed generation. The reliability indices SAIDI, SAIFI and MAIFI are formulated as optimization models that allow adequacy of the protection system in relation to the operating conditions imposed by distributed generation. The aspects considered include the allocation, selectivity and coordination of protective devices. The allocation of sectionalizing switches for feeder restoration is the strategy to maximize the positive impact of distributed generation on the system reliability. The model solutions provide the protective devices and switches locations, as well as reclosers’ settings for phase and ground units, independently. Reliability indices minimization is formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Goal Programming problem, in order to establish the optimal trade-off between reducing momentary and sustained interruptions in distribution systems. The analytical models are solved using a general-use optimization package based on the Branch-and-Bound method. The methodology is evaluated through a case study considering increasing levels of distributed generation penetration on a real distribution feeder. The proposed mathematical models are applied in different scenarios of system operation and under different economic constraints. The results allow the evaluation of the impact of distributed generation on restoration and protection of the test system.

sensíveis têm requerido elevados níveis de confiabilidade dos sistemas de distribuição de energia. Em meio a este cenário, a proliferação de geradores distribuídos conectados próximos às cargas evidencia o surgimento de um novo paradigma na produção e utilização da energia elétrica. No entanto, muitos problemas decorrem do fato de que os sistemas de distribuição não foram projetados para incorporar unidades geradoras de energia. A estratégia completa de controle e proteção é definida sob o pressuposto do fluxo unidirecional de potência nos alimentadores. Um dos conflitos mais imediatos que surgem com a penetração da geração distribuída é relacionado ao sistema de proteção, resultado da alteração na magnitude das correntes de falta. Algumas consequências são a perda da sensibilidade e da coordenação da proteção. Se contornados estes problemas, a geração distribuída tem potencial para exercer impacto positivo sobre a confiabilidade, em especial no suporte ao restabelecimento da carga em situações de contingência. Tendo em vista estes fatores, a metodologia proposta adota uma perspectiva multicriterial para otimizar o desempenho dos sistemas de distribuição na presença da geração distribuída. Os indicadores SAIDI, SAIFI e MAIFI são formulados como modelos de otimização que possibilitam a adequação do sistema de proteção às condições operacionais impostas pela geração distribuída. Dentre os aspectos considerados incluem-se a alocação, a seletividade e a coordenação dos dispositivos de proteção. A alocação de chaves de manobras para reconfiguração do alimentador é a estratégia adotada para maximizar o efeito positivo da geração distribuída sobre a confiabilidade. As soluções dos modelos definem os locais de instalação dos dispositivos de proteção e manobras, e os ajustes dos religadores de forma independente para as unidades de fase e terra. A minimização simultânea dos indicadores é formulada como um problema de Programação Linear Inteira Mista por Metas, visando o balanço ótimo entre a redução das interrupções momentâneas e sustentadas nos sistemas de distribuição. Os modelos analíticos dos indicadores são solucionados utilizando um pacote de otimização de uso geral, baseado no método de Branch-and-Bound. A metodologia é avaliada a partir de um estudo de caso, considerando níveis crescentes de penetração da geração distribuída em um alimentador de distribuição real. Os modelos matemáticos são aplicados em cenários distintos de operação do sistema, associados à diferentes restrições econômicas. Os resultados possibilitam a avaliação do impacto da geração distribuída no restabelecimento e na proteção do sistema de forma independente. / The increasing automation of industrial processes and the sensitivity of electronic loads have required high levels of power distribution system’s reliability. In this scenario, the widespread use of distributed generators connected near the loads shows the emergence of a new paradigm in electric energy production and application. However, many problems arise from the fact that the distribution systems were not designed to deal with power generating units. The complete control and protection strategy is defined under the assumption of radial power flow. One of the most immediate conflicts that arise with the penetration of distributed generation is related to the protection system, a result of the change in fault currents magnitude. Some consequences are loss of protection coordination and sensitivity. By addressing these problems, distributed generation has the potential to have a positive impact on distribution reliability, especially in supporting load restoration during system’s contingencies. Considering these factors, the proposed methodology uses a multi-criteria approach to optimize the overall performance of distribution systems in the presence of distributed generation. The reliability indices SAIDI, SAIFI and MAIFI are formulated as optimization models that allow adequacy of the protection system in relation to the operating conditions imposed by distributed generation. The aspects considered include the allocation, selectivity and coordination of protective devices. The allocation of sectionalizing switches for feeder restoration is the strategy to maximize the positive impact of distributed generation on the system reliability. The model solutions provide the protective devices and switches locations, as well as reclosers’ settings for phase and ground units, independently. Reliability indices minimization is formulated as a Mixed Integer Linear Goal Programming problem, in order to establish the optimal trade-off between reducing momentary and sustained interruptions in distribution systems. The analytical models are solved using a general-use optimization package based on the Branch-and-Bound method. The methodology is evaluated through a case study considering increasing levels of distributed generation penetration on a real distribution feeder. The proposed mathematical models are applied in different scenarios of system operation and under different economic constraints. The results allow the evaluation of the impact of distributed generation on restoration and protection of the test system.