by Chan Hing-kuen, Ko Hung-yue. / Bibliography: leaves 88-90 / Thesis (M.B.A.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1985

Thesis (doctoral)--Ruprecht-Karl-Universität zu Heidelberg.

by Lam Pui-fong Karen. / Thesis (M.B.A.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 51-53). / ABSTRACT --- p.ii / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.iv / ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.v / Chapter / Chapter I. --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter II. --- PROBLEMS AND METHODOLOGY --- p.7 / Chapter III. --- TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE SETTLEMENT --- p.11 / International Trade --- p.11 / Parties Involved in Doing International Trade --- p.12 / Payment Methods Used by Hong Kong Exporters --- p.14 / Chapter IV. --- RISK PARAMETERS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE… --- p.22 / General Commercial Risks --- p.22 / Additional Risk Parameters --- p.24 / Chapter V. --- COMMON TRADE SETTLEMENT METHODS IN HONG KONG --- p.34 / Implicit Controls --- p.35 / Financing Ease --- p.37 / Political Arbitrage --- p.40 / Chapter VI. --- CONCLUSIONS --- p.43 / Documentary Risks --- p.43 / Bank Risks --- p.45 / Jurisdiction --- p.46 / Summary Observations --- p.47 / Concluding Remarks --- p.50 / BIBLIOGRAPHY --- p.51

Thesis (D. Jur.)--York University, 2001. Graduate Programme in Law. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 403-466). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/yorku/fullcit?pNQ66353.

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Thesis ((LLD (Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 1996. / 424 leaves single sided printed, preliminary pages and numbered pages 1-356. Includes bibliography, digitized at 300 dpi (OCR), used Bizhub 250. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The documentary credit is one of the most important methods of payment utilised in international trade. This versatile instrument is encountered in a variety of forms. In its simplest form it is an undertaking by a bank given on application by a buyer-importer (the bank's client) to pay the seller-exporter (the beneficiary) against delivery of stipulated documents. It has two essential characteristics: (i) the bank's undertaking to pay the beneficiary is independent of the contract of sale and the contract between the bank and its client; and (ii) the bank will pay only against the precise documents stipulated in the credit. In Chapter One the different relationships established between the parties involved are dealt with against this background, and the different types of credits are discussed. Documentary credits are, comparatively speaking, modern instruments. Possible historical origins are explored briefly in Chapter Two. Documentary credits are virtually invariably applied for and issued subject to the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (the UCP). The UCP is a set of rules formulated by the International Chamber of Commerce. The modern history of documentary credits as reflected in the development of the UCP is discussed in Chapter Three. The legal nature of the UCP is analysed from a civilian, common-law and South African perspective in Chapter Four. The legal nature of the relationship between the bank and the beneficiary is the focal point of Chapter Five. The question is approached from a civilian (especially German and Dutch), common-law (especially English and American) and South African point of view. Special attention is devoted to the ability (or inability) of the traditional law of contract of the different jurisdictions to provide a theoretical foundation for (i) the independence of the bank's obligation, and (ii) the irrevocability of the bank's undertaking. The conclusion arrived at is that the South African law of contract is able to provide an adequate basis for this relationship in general and these two matters in particular. In the final chapter the defences available to the bank against the beneficiary's claim are scrutinised, as well as the possibility of the bank being interdicted from paying the beneficiary. Related issues such as anti-dissipation interdicts and attachments in the documentary-credit context are also dealt with. These questions are likewise investigated from a civilian, common-law and South African perspective. This investigation leads to the conclusion that the South African law is essentially in harmony with the law elsewhere and that our courts have been successful to date in protecting the integrity of documentary credits. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die dokumentêre kredietbrief is een van die belangrikste betalingsmetodes wat in die internasionale handel aangewend word. Hierdie buigbare middel kan 'n verskeidenheid van vorms aanneem. In sy eenvoudigste vorm is dit 'n onderneming deur 'n bank wat op aansoek van 'n koper-invoerder (die bank se kliënt) aan die verkoper-uitvoerder (die begunstigde) gegee word. Dit het twee essensiele eienskappe: (i) die onderneming van die bank om die begunstigde te betaal is onafhanklik van die koopkontrak sowel as die kontrak tussen die bank en sy klient; en (ii) die bank sal slegs betaal teen lewering van die presiese dokumente vereis in die kredietbrief. In Hoofstuk Een word die verskillende verhoudinge tussen die partye betrokke teen hierdie agtergrond bespreek asook die verskillende tipes kredietbriewe. Dokumentere kredietbriewe is relatief gesproke moderne instrumente. Moontlike historiese oorspronge word kortliks in Hoofstuk Twee verken. Kredietbriewe word bykans sonder uitsondering aangevra en uitgereik onderworpe aan die Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (die UCP). Die UCP is 'n stel reels wat deur die Internasionale Kamer van Koophandel opgestel is. Die moderne geskiedenis van kredietbriewe soos in die ontwikkeling van die UCP weerspieel, is die hoofonderwerp van Hoofstuk Drie. In Hoofstuk Vier word die regsaard van die UCP vanuit die perspektief van die regstelsels baseer op die ius civile, die common-law stelsels en die Suid-Afrikaanse reg beskou. In Hoofstuk Vyf word op die regsaard van die verhouding tussen die bank en die begunstigde gefokus. Die aangeleentheid word benader vanuit 'n ius civile (veral Duitse en Nederlandse) perspektief, 'n common-law (veral Engelse en Amerikaanse) perspektief, asook 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perspektief. Besondere aandag word verleen aan die vermoe (of onvermoe) van die tradisionele kontraktereg in die verskillende jurisdiksies om 'n teoretiese grondslag daar te stel vir: (i) die onafhanklikheid van die bank se verpligting; en (ii) die onherroepbaarheid van die bank se betalingsonderneming. Daar word tot die gevolgtrekking geraak dat die Suid-Afrikaanse kontraktereg wel in staat is om 'n bevredigende basis vir die verhouding in die algemeen, en hierdie twee aangeleenthede in die besonder, daar te stel. In die laaste hoofstuk word aandag geskenk aan die verwere wat 'n bank teenoor die begunstigde se aanspraak kan opper, asook aan die moontlikheid dat die bank by wyse van interdik belet kan word om die begunstigde te betaal. Verwante aangeleenthede soos interdikte in securitatem debiti en beslagleggings in die konteks van kredietbriewe word ook bygehaal. Hierdie aangeleenthede word eweneens vanuit 'n ius civile, common-law, en Suid-Afrikaanse perspektief benader. Die ondersoek lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat die Suid-Afrikaanse reg breedweg beskou in harmonie is met ander stelsels en dat ons howe die integriteit van kredietbriewe tot dusver suksesvol beskerm het.

This thesis deals with export payment. Different payment methods that can be used in order to receive and secure payment when conducting international trade are analysed, and relevant risks and problems are examined. Particular focus is given to export trade with China. International trade offers great possibilities for companies, but also risks. There are several risks that should be taken into consideration, for instance the political risk, the exchange risk and the commercial risk. The commercial risk is the seller’s risk of non-payment or late payment and the buyer’s risk of non-delivery or faulty delivery Over the last decades the Chinese market has gone through considerable changes and today it is one of the world’s most important markets. The commercial risk is sometimes feared when doing business in China. This is because statements have been made claiming that Chinese buyers are somewhat untrustworthy payers. Payment is an essential part of all trade transactions. There are a number of payment methods that can be used in order to receive and secure international payment. Which payment method that should be used depends on the circumstances of the transaction. The documentary credit is a frequently used payment method in interna-tional trade. It offers the exporter security of payment because at least one bank adds its promises to pay. / Denna uppsats behandlar betalning vid export. Olika betalningsmetoder som kan användas för att erhålla och säkerställa betalning analyseras, och relevanta risker och problem studeras. Uppsatsen är särskilt inriktad på Kina. Internationell handel medför många möjligheter för företag, men också en ökad risk. Hänsyn måste tas till bland annat den politiska risken, valutarisken och den kommersiella risken. Den kommersiella risken är risken att betalning eller leverans inte sker i enlighet med vad som har avtalats. Den kinesiska marknaden har under de senaste årtiondena genomgått en omfattande förändring, och idag är den en av världens viktigaste marknader. Den kommersiella risken är ibland befarad vid kinesisk handel. Detta beror på att det finns en uppfattning att kinesiska köpare ibland kan vara osäkra betalare. Betalning är en viktig del av alla handelstransaktioner. Det finns ett antal betalningsmetoder som kan användas för att erhålla och säkerställa internationell betalning. Vilken metod som bör användas beror på omständigheterna vid handelstransaktionen. Remburs är en betalningsmetod som är vanligt förekommande vid internationell handel. Metoden ger exportören betalningssäkerhet eftersom minst en bank garanterar betalningen.

<p>This thesis deals with export payment. Different payment methods that can be used in order to receive and secure payment when conducting international trade are analysed, and relevant risks and problems are examined. Particular focus is given to export trade with China.</p><p>International trade offers great possibilities for companies, but also risks. There are several risks that should be taken into consideration, for instance the political risk, the exchange risk and the commercial risk. The commercial risk is the seller’s risk of non-payment or late payment and the buyer’s risk of non-delivery or faulty delivery</p><p>Over the last decades the Chinese market has gone through considerable changes and today it is one of the world’s most important markets. The commercial risk is sometimes feared when doing business in China. This is because statements have been made claiming that Chinese buyers are somewhat untrustworthy payers.</p><p>Payment is an essential part of all trade transactions. There are a number of payment methods that can be used in order to receive and secure international payment. Which payment method that should be used depends on the circumstances of the transaction. The documentary credit is a frequently used payment method in interna-tional trade. It offers the exporter security of payment because at least one bank adds its promises to pay.</p> / <p>Denna uppsats behandlar betalning vid export. Olika betalningsmetoder som kan användas för att erhålla och säkerställa betalning analyseras, och relevanta risker och problem studeras. Uppsatsen är särskilt inriktad på Kina.</p><p>Internationell handel medför många möjligheter för företag, men också en ökad risk. Hänsyn måste tas till bland annat den politiska risken, valutarisken och den kommersiella risken. Den kommersiella risken är risken att betalning eller leverans inte sker i enlighet med vad som har avtalats.</p><p>Den kinesiska marknaden har under de senaste årtiondena genomgått en omfattande förändring, och idag är den en av världens viktigaste marknader. Den kommersiella risken är ibland befarad vid kinesisk handel. Detta beror på att det finns en uppfattning att kinesiska köpare ibland kan vara osäkra betalare.</p><p>Betalning är en viktig del av alla handelstransaktioner. Det finns ett antal betalningsmetoder som kan användas för att erhålla och säkerställa internationell betalning. Vilken metod som bör användas beror på omständigheterna vid handelstransaktionen. Remburs är en betalningsmetod som är vanligt förekommande vid internationell handel. Metoden ger exportören betalningssäkerhet eftersom minst en bank garanterar betalningen.</p>

University of Macau / Faculty of Law

LL.M. (Commercial Law) / Please refer to full text to view abstract