<p>  </p> <p>A large portion of the demand for purebred dogs in the United States is met by commercial breeding (CB). CB is a contentious issue, and concern exists surrounding the quality and quantity of human-animal interactions in CB kennels. Quality of caretaker interactions has been demonstrated to affect welfare in livestock and laboratory animals, yet is widely understudied in kenneled dogs, especially those kept for CB. It therefore warrants investigation. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the effect of a short, regular, positive caretaker interaction on physiological and behavioral metrics of dog welfare in CB kennels. Adult bitches (n = 47) from two CB kennels received a daily interaction with a familiar caretaker for two weeks. Half of the dogs (n = 24) received a 2-minute caretaker interaction with treats (CI), and the other half (n = 23) received treats only (TO). All other human interactions were limited to routine husbandry. Fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), hair cortisol concentration (HCC), and behavior in response to human approach were measured at baseline (Day 0), after two weeks of treatment (Day 14), and two weeks after treatment ended (Day 28). Behavior during treatment delivery was scored from video on days 1, 2, 8, 9, 13, and 14. General linear mixed models were used with treatment type and timepoint as fixed effects, dog nested within pen as random effects, and welfare metrics as dependent variables. Data from both facilities were analyzed and presented separately. In Facility 1 (n = 25), treatment type did not affect hair cortisol concentration (HCC) or fecal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA). However, HCC increased significantly from Day 0 to Day 28 (X2 = 5.83, <em>p </em>= 0.016) and fecal sIgA decreased significantly (X2 = 21.52, <em>p </em>< 0.001) over all three timepoints. Affiliative behavior in response to human approach increased over time with no significant effect of treatment type or tester (X2=10.549, <em>p</em>=0.001). Additionally, time spent in proximity to the caretaker significantly increased in both treatment groups during the daily interaction (CI: X2=14.047, <em>p</em><0.001, and TO: X2=5.121, <em>p</em>=0.024). In Facility 2 (n = 22), there was no effect of treatment type on physiological metrics, however, HCC decreased in time (X2 = 6.66, <em>p </em>= 0.009) in both treatment groups combined. Affiliative response to human approach increased over time in Facility 2 (X2=13.5782, <em>p</em>=0.001). During daily interactions, dogs from the TO group displayed increased affiliative (X2 = 8.58, <em>p </em>= 0.003) and decreased ambivalent (X2 = 10.42, <em>p </em>= 0.001) behaviors over time, while dogs from the CI group showed increasing latency to approach the caretaker (X2 = 4.38, <em>p </em>= 0.033). Changes in physiological and behavioral metrics differed by facility and treatment group. Factors such as variation in treatment quality and prior caretaker-animal relationship may play a role in dogs’ responses to the treatment. These results suggest that a caretaker interaction has the potential to improve welfare in dogs residing in CB kennels. However, careful consideration must be taken when implementing new protocols to avoid unintended increases in stress. For some adult dogs unaccustomed to extended, structured interactions with their caretakers, a 2-minute session may have resulted in increased physiological and behavioral stress, suggesting that a longer interaction might have jeopardized rather than improved their welfare. For these dogs, a more gradual introduction to human interactions may be more beneficial. This study offers new insight on the implementation of socialization, counterconditioning, and caretaker-dog interaction practices to maximize positive welfare in CB kennels. Future research is needed to further validate and expand upon these findings.</p>

<p>Much of the demand for purebred dogs in the USA is met by commercial breeding kennels (CBKs). In CBKs, adult dogs have been reported to exhibit signs of fear towards strangers. Social fear is a particular welfare concern as it may lead to acute and chronic stress in the kennel, and later, after dogs are retired and rehomed. Studies on pet and shelter dogs have shown that the type of attachment style dogs have with their caretakers is associated with their social behavior towards strangers. Thus, the aims of this study were to characterize the attachment styles of dogs from CBKs to their caretakers, and investigate relationships between the types of attachment styles observed and social fear behaviors in this population of dogs. Forty-eight adult dogs were tested from three CBKs in Indiana, USA. Each dog was subjected to a standard battery of tests, including a Secure Base test to classify attachment styles, a Stranger Arena test to measure the duration and frequency of key social behaviors toward a stranger, and a Paired-Effect test to measure the duration and frequency of social behaviors towards a stranger in the presence of a caretaker. Twenty (41.67%) dogs were classified as secure, 16 (33.33%) as insecure ambivalent, 9 (18.75%) as insecure avoidant, and 3 (6.25%) as insecure disorganized. ANOVA tests showed that secure and ambivalent dogs approached the stranger more frequently (F2,45 = 11.865, <em>p </em>< 0.001), spent more time in close proximity (F2,45 = 15.968, <em>p </em>< 0.001), and solicited contact more frequently (F2,45 = 4.58, <em>p </em>= 0.023) from them than did avoidant dogs. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Tests showed that secure, ambivalent, and avoidant dogs all initially approached the stranger more quickly in the paired-effect test than in the stranger arena test (<em>p </em>< 0.05). Secure and ambivalent dogs also spent more time in proximity to (<em>p </em>< 0.001) and solicited more contact from (<em>p </em>< 0.01) the stranger in the paired-effect test than in the stranger arena test. These results suggest that there is an association between type of attachment style and fear behaviors towards a stranger in this sample of dogs. Understanding connections between attachment style and social fear, and their implications for stress and welfare in dogs from CBKs may help inform breeders’ selection criteria and breeding decisions. It may also inform breeders’ socialization, social interactions, and related management practices, which in turn may help to reduce dogs’ social fear and enhance their long- term welfare outcomes in the kennel. This understanding may also aid rehoming efforts. With this increased understanding, breeders could inform new owners about behaviors they can expect from their dogs which may help avoid a potential mismatch in expectations. This in turn may help keep dogs in their homes and improve their welfare in the long-term. </p>

<p dir="ltr">In the US, dogs are considered members of the family by many people. Dogs may be obtained from multiple sources, but many in the US originate from commercial breeding kennels (CBKs). Prioritizing adult dogs’ welfare while they are housed in these kennels is essential for their well-being not only while residing there, but throughout the rest of their lives in new environments for those who are rehomed after their breeding careers end. However, the research conducted in this population is scarce. Therefore, evaluating dogs’ overall welfare states and factors that may affect them in this population is crucial.</p><p dir="ltr">Maternal factors are one of many that may affect puppies’ welfare states. This topic has never been directly explored in US CBKs and has been understudied in all domestic dogs. Therefore, this dissertation sought to explore associations between maternal factors and puppy welfare indicators, and related topics.</p><p dir="ltr">Chapter 2 aimed to explore changes in indicators of dams’ welfare states (<i>n</i>= 74), such as behavioral responses to a mild stressor and stress-related physiology, throughout the peri-parturient period in 8 CBKs. The changes observed were most likely due to natural biological changes associated with the peri-parturient period, and no worrisome indicators of welfare were detected. Additionally, Chapter 3 sought to investigate the relationship between dams’ levels of fear and stress (<i>n</i>= 90), as indicated by behavior and stress-related physiology, and metrics indicative of their puppies’ welfare states (<i>n</i>= 390), such as behavior, stress-related physiology, and physical health, in 12 CBKs. Findings suggest some associations between dams’ fear and stress and their puppies’ behavioral responses to isolation, physiology, and physical health. To further explore these associations, Chapter 4 examined the relationships between dams’ (<i>n</i>= 79) and puppies’ (<i>n</i>= 291) behavioral responses to novel social and non-social stimuli in 11 CBKs. No significant associations between dams’ and puppies’ responses were discovered, and possible reasons such as kennel management practices, puppies’ mobility and hazard avoidance, and differences between dams’ and puppies’ early life experiences were discussed. Finally, as the type and level of maternal care dams provide may be indicative of their welfare and may also be related to puppy welfare, Chapter 5 aimed to characterize maternal behaviors in a CBK (<i>n</i>= 12) and working dog population focused on detection work (<i>n</i>= 8). This study uncovered common maternal behaviors in each population, such as nursing and licking puppies. It also revealed that the behaviors observed were consistent with those reported for other dog populations, and found that factors such as day, time of day, litter size, and whelping type may influence their expression.</p><p dir="ltr">Overall, results from these studies suggest that there were no worrisome changes in dams’ welfare states throughout the peri-parturient period. Additionally, dams’ levels of fear and stress may affect potential indicators of their puppies’ welfare states, such as stress-related physiology, behavioral responses to stressors, and physical health. Findings highlight the importance of closely monitoring dams throughout the peri-parturient period for consistent displays of fear and stress, and abnormal behaviors. Doing so may not only affect dams’ welfare but that of their puppies as well. Further, the characterization and exploration of factors that may affect maternal care in various populations provides the basis for future work to explore maternal care as a mechanism behind the significant associations between dam and puppy welfare. The results also provide a foundation for breeders and caretakers to monitor maternal care, and make breeding selection and management interventions as needed to best support dam and puppy welfare. Altogether, findings from this research may have salient implications for dam’s welfare states throughout the peri-parturient period, and puppies’ welfare states while housed with their dams and into adulthood.</p>

In the UK, laboratory-housed dogs are primarily used as a non-rodent species in the safety testing of new medicines and other chemical entities. The use of animals in research is governed by the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act (1986, amended 2012) and legislation is underpinned by the principles of humane experimental technique: Replacement, Reduction and Refinement. A link between animal welfare and the quality of data produced has been shown in other species (e.g. rodents, nonhuman primates), however, no established, integrated methodology for identifying or monitoring welfare and quality of data output previously existed in the laboratory-housed dog. In order to investigate the effects of planned Refinements to various aspects of husbandry and regulated procedures, this project sought to integrate behavioural, physiological and other measures (e.g. cognitive bias, mechanical pressure threshold) and to provide a means for staff to monitor welfare whilst also establishing the relationship between welfare and quality of data output. Affective state was identified using an established method of cognitive bias testing, before measuring welfare at ‘baseline’ using measures of behaviour and physiology. Dogs then underwent ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ behavioural challenges to identify the measures most sensitive to changing welfare and most suitable for use in a framework. The resulting Welfare Assessment Framework, developed in three groups of dogs from contrasting backgrounds within the facility, found a consistent pattern of behaviour, cardiovascular function, affect and mechanical pressure threshold (MPT). Dogs with a negative affective state had higher blood pressure at baseline than those with positive affective states, and the magnitude of the effect of negative welfare suggests that welfare may act as a confound in the interpretation of cardiovascular data. The responses to restraint included increases in blood pressure and heart rate measures which approached ceiling levels, potentially reducing the sensitivity of measurement. If maintained over time this response could potentially have a negative health impact on other organ systems and affecting the data obtained from those. Dogs with a negative welfare state also had a lower mechanical pressure threshold, meaning they potentially experienced greater stimulation from unpleasant physical stimuli. Taken together with the behaviours associated with a negative welfare state (predominantly vigilant or stereotypic behaviours) the data suggest that dogs with a negative welfare state have a greater behavioural and physiological response to stimuli in their environment; as such, data obtained from their use is different from that obtained from dogs with a positive welfare state. This was confirmed by examining the effect size (Cohen’s d ) resulting from the analysis of affective state on cardiovascular data. An increase in variance, particularly in the small dog numbers typical of safety assessment studies, means a reduction in the power of the study to detect the effect under observation; a decrease in variation has the potential to reduce the number of dogs use, in line with the principle of Reduction and good scientific practice. The development of the framework also identified areas of the laboratory environment suitable for Refinement (e.g. restriction to single-housing and restraint) and other easily-implemented Refinements (e.g. feeding toy and human interaction) which could be used to improve welfare. As a result of this, a Welfare Monitoring Tool (WMT) in the form of a tick sheet was developed for technical and scientific staff to identify those dogs at risk of reduced welfare and producing poor quality data, as well as to monitor the effects of Refinements to protocols. Oral gavage is a common regulated procedure, known to be potentially aversive and was identified as an area in need of Refinement. A program of desensitisation and positive reinforcement training was implemented in a study also comparing the effects of a sham dose condition versus a control, no-training, condition. A number of the measures used, including home pen behaviour, behaviour during dosing, MPT and the WMT showed significant benefits to the dogs in the Refined condition. Conversely, dogs in the sham dose condition showed more signs of distress and took longer to dose than dogs in the control condition. The welfare of control dogs was intermediate to sham dose and Refined protocol dogs. This project identified a positive relationship between positive welfare and higher quality of data output. It developed and validated a practical and feasible means of measuring welfare in the laboratory environment in the Welfare Assessment Framework, identified areas in need of Refinement and developed practical ways to implement such Refinements to husbandry and regulated procedures. As such it should have wide implications for the pharmaceutical industry and other users of dogs in scientific research.

The most common type of human animal interaction (HAI) programme used in prisons involves prisoners caring for and training unwanted dogs from rescue shelters, to prepare the dogs for rehoming. Such programmes have been previously developed specifically aimed towards male young offenders, and are claimed to improve emotional, social and practical outcomes. Paws for Progress, the first prison based dog training programme in the UK, was introduced to HM YOI Polmont in 2011. By clearly communicating each step of the 5 Step approach (1. Identify the problem; 2. Review the evidence; 3. Develop a logic model; 4. Identify indicators and monitor the logic model; 5. Evaluate the logic model), it has enhanced our understanding of the development processes required for effective prison based dog training programmes. This evaluation provides the first comprehensive quantitative analysis of short, medium and long term outcomes for Scottish young offenders serving custodial sentences (N = 70) following participation. The aims of Paws for Progress are to improve behaviour, increase engagement in education, develop employability skills, and enhance well-being. Using a mixed design with two control groups and triangulating quantitative and qualitative outcomes, the evaluation assesses the efficacy of the programme in meeting these aims. Systematic analyses of semi-structured interviews pre and post participation in the programme support findings from the quantitative analyses. Analyses of institutional behaviour, measured by Disciplinary Reports, educational progress measured by written assessments and qualifications, employability skills measured by psychometric tests, and prisoner well-being all improved for participants, but such improvements were not shown by control groups. Paws for Progress positively impacts short and medium term outcomes and data on longer term outcomes also indicate the benefits are far reaching. By clearly relating programme aims to the outcomes achieved, and considering the contribution of Paws for Progress to future desistance from crime, the value and relevance of these findings are evident. The evaluation contributes to our understanding of effective methodologies in this applied context, which can be utilised to improve research practice in interventions in criminal justice and in human animal interaction.