Characteristics of emitters under low pressure are essential for designing drip irrigation systems. Low pressure data for drip emitters are not available from manufacturers. A laboratory test was conducted to evaluate the performance of five types of newly manufactured drip tapes, especially under a low pressure distribution system. The five drip products that were tested were (i) Toro Drip in PC (PCS 1810-18- 100), (ii) T-Tape (TT15-1245-0100), (iii) Mister_LS (MLD-HDT100), (iv) Mister_PS (MLD-1PC 25), and (v) Netafim (Techline CV 560 050). Drip tapes tested in this study have design discharge rates of 4.00 L/hr @ 206.84 Kpa (1.06 gph @ 30 psi), 1.02 L/hr @ 55.16 Kpa (0.27 gph @ 8 psi), 3.785 L/hr @ 172.37 Kpa (1.00 gph @ 25 psi), 3.785 L/hr @172.37 Kpa (1.00 gph @ 25 psi), and 0.984 L/hr @ 206.84 Kpa (0.26 gph @ 20psi), respectively. All of them, except T-Tape, were pressure compensating (PC) emitters; the T-Tape was non-pressure compensating (NPC). For all products, except Toro, the emitter spacing was 0.305 m (12 inches) and for Toro, it was 0.46 m (18 inches). Mister_PS (MLD-1PC 25) was the point source (PS) emitter and all others were line source emitters. Drip products were tested with 15 different operating pressures ranging from 5.97 KPa (0.87 psi) to 344.74 KPa (50.00 psi). From an evaluation of 60 emitters from each product, the Toro brand showed an average uniformity coefficient (UC) of 91.24 %, with a coefficient of variation (Cv) of 0.06, T-Tape drip products showed an average UC of 96.63 % with a Cv of 0.04, Mister_ LS showed an average UC of 93.12 % with a Cv of 0.08, Mister_PS showed an average UC of 96.33 % with a Cv of 0.04, and Netafim showed an average UC of 97.92 % with a Cv of 0.02. Flow rate vs. pressure head (Q-H) curves were also developed for each drip emitter tested. From emitter exponent values it was observed that all of the pressure compensating (PC) products behaved like NPC emitters at low pressures, although they behaved like PC emitters under normal operating pressures. From statistical analysis, it was determined that except for Netafim product, all other tested products were effective under low operating pressures as were under high operating or recommended pressures. Netafim product had no emission under low pressures. Using the measured average emission rate and developed Q-H curves, the distribution uniformities of all products except Netafim were calculated under low pressure ranges of 5.97 KPa (0.87 psi) to 23.88 KPa (3.50 psi ) for different lengths of laterals and under 0%, 1%, 2%

The hydraulics of IDEal drip irrigation system components were analyzed under controlled laboratory conditions and the results can be applied to the design of IDEal systems. The hydraulic loss coefficient for the lateral-submain connector valves was determined based on laboratory measurements. It was found that the hydraulic loss due to friction in the lay-flat laterals can be accurately estimated with standard friction loss equations using a smaller effective diameter based on the wall thickness and inlet pressure head. The equivalent length barb loss, expressed as an equivalent length of lateral, was calculated for button emitters, as well as for micro-tubes inserted to lengths of 5 and 10 cm. It was concluded that the barb loss is essentially constant over the micro-tube insertion range of 5-10 cm. The head-discharge relationship and coefficient of manufacturer's variation of pre-punched lateral holes (without emitters), button emitters, and micro-tubes were characterized. Finally, several IDEal drip irrigation systems in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia were evaluated in the field. Recommendations were given for future research and improvements in the manufacturing, installation, operation, and maintenance of IDEal drip irrigation equipment.

The Gesture and the Drip investigates our increasing reliance on digital media as a means to encounter and view art works online as photographic documentation. This body of work attempts to place significance on the human gesture in relation to the loss of the human presence that often accompanies digital documentation. The gesture is a reoccurring element that can be traced throughout my thesis body of work. Occasionally, gestures are tactile marks made by my hand and in other cases they are the result of photographic reproduction, silk-screened onto the surface. A paradox is formed between the real and illusion that are interchangeable on the canvas. My paintings encompass authentic and mediated gestures to challenge the visual experience and disrupt a logical reading.

Subsurface drip distribution is an important on-site wastewater treatment technique which is widely used with various soil types and restricted site conditions. It can distribute pretreated wastewater uniformly into soil. Some recent field applications showed low application uniformities, which was reflected in overloading of the field near the supply manifold while low emitter discharge rates occurred at the end of lateral. Designers are seeking appropriate operation pressures and drip zone configurations to improve system application uniformity. This research was conducted to test some popular wastewater drip products in both lab and field-scale experiments. The first goal of this study was to evaluate the performance of five subsurface drip products under eight operational pressures ranging from 0 to 310 kPa (45 psi). After evaluation of each group of 60 emitters, results showed that Netafim Bioline pressure compensating (PC) emitters exhibited a uniformity coefficient (UC) of 95% with a coefficient of variance (Cv) of 4.9%. The average UC of Geoflow Wasteflow products is 94.4% and Cv value is 6.8%. Flow rate and pressure relationships (Q-H curves) were developed for each drip emitter tested. By analyzing low and normal operational pressure ranges, Q-H curves were fitted to the data and resulted in R2 values ranging from 1.000 to 0.414. Geoflow pressure compensating products possess the features of non-pressure compensating emitters under low pressure head. Netafim PC products are characterized as pressure compensating over the full range of operational pressures and emit water with nominal uniformity during low pressure range. To evaluate drip zone configurations with respect to distribution uniformity, a field-scale experiment was set up and three drip tubing products were tested in different dosing and operation schemes. Three factors of wastewater drip system design were tested. System operation pressure (138 kPa/20 psi and 276 kPa/40 psi); different pressure control components (pressure regulator/recirculation valve) and schemes (continuous flushing/intermittent flushing); and supply line length (7.6 m/25 ft, 15.2 m/50 ft, and 30.4 m/100 ft) were evaluated to compare their influence on water application uniformity. It was concluded that, for Geoflow PC and NPC products, among all three factors, system operational pressure has the greatest effect on drip system application uniformity; supply line length has the least influence. For Netafim PC tubing, pressure control scheme has the greatest effect on drip system application uniformity; supply line length has the least influence. The optimal combination of the three factors could save more than 10 minutes of dosing time to meet the required dosing application uniformity. An engineering computation example on system fill time was presented and compared to experimental results to demonstrate the possible gap between typical design processes and real field application.

The overall goal of this study is to determine the resolution and type of proxy that any one drip site can provide for the determination of past climate. The study examines surface conditions (effective rainfall, temperature, PDSI), cave characteristics (cave geometry, cave air CO2, location), drip site characteristics (drip rate, drip rate response to rainfall), and drip water characteristics (pH, trace element ratios, alkalinity, temperature). The study encompasses two distinctly different caves, Inner Space Cavern (Chapter 2) and Westcave (Chapter 3). A goal of Chapter 2 is to identify drip sites where there is an intra-annual climate signal, which can assist with high resolution paleo-drought reconstructions when extended to speleothem studies. To be considered an intra-annual climate sensitive drip site, a site should display statistically significant correlations between (1) effective rainfall and drip rate; (2) effective rainfall and Mg/Ca; (3) drip rate and Mg/Ca; (4) Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and drip rate; and (5) PDSI and Mg/Ca. These relationships can be explained by the extent to which water flux in the karst overburden influences flow path characteristics, water residence time, and water-rock interactions. The data in Chapter 3 will indicate that (1) variations in trace element/Ca values in cave drip waters are temperature dependent and vary on a seasonal time scale, (2) the standardization of trace element/Ca values allows for between drip site comparisons, (3) the standardization of trace element/Ca values can add statistical power to statistical analyses by increasing the sample size, (4) calcite growth rates follow a seasonal pattern based on variations in surface temperature, (5) a regional drought indicator provides correlation with trace element/Ca values at some drip sites and this relationship is most likely dependent upon temperature. / text

The Gesture and the Drip investigates our increasing reliance on digital media as a means to encounter and view art works online as photographic documentation. This body of work attempts to place significance on the human gesture in relation to the loss of the human presence that often accompanies digital documentation. The gesture is a reoccurring element that can be traced throughout my thesis body of work. Occasionally, gestures are tactile marks made by my hand and in other cases they are the result of photographic reproduction, silk-screened onto the surface. A paradox is formed between the real and illusion that are interchangeable on the canvas. My paintings encompass authentic and mediated gestures to challenge the visual experience and disrupt a logical reading.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Biological & Agricultural Engineering / Aleksey Y. Sheshukov / Isaya Kisekka / The Ogallala aquifer has been important to agriculture in the U.S. High Plains for the past six decades. Groundwater from the aquifer helped turn the fertile soils of the region, large parts of which are semi-arid, into some of the most productive agricultural lands in the U.S. and the world. However, this agricultural success has come at a great cost to the aquifer. Today, as a result of drastic aquifer drawdown, well capacities in some regions of the High Plains are no longer sufficient to sustainably irrigate crops. In response to this growing problem, wide ranging efforts towards conservation of the Ogallala aquifer were formulated and implemented. One of these efforts is to further improve irrigation efficiency. Adaptation of microirrigation, an efficient method of irrigation, to center pivots is regarded by some as the next major step towards expanding the usage of microirrigation technology, and along with-it improving the efficiency in center pivot systems. Four studies were conducted as parts of this dissertation with the application of a four-span center pivot, installed at the Kansas State University’s Southwest Research and Extension Centre (SWREC) in Garden City, Kansas. The studies assessed the technical performance of Mobile Drip Irrigation (MDI) compared to Low Elevation Spray Application (LESA) and Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA). In the first study, the irrigation uniformity, application efficiency and seasonal irrigation uniformity of MDI were evaluated against those of LEPA and LESA. Two sets of MDIs, one with a dripper flow rate of 3.8 L/h, and another of 7.6 L/h, a LESA spray and LEPA bubbler were utilized. Potential differences in season-long irrigation uniformity between the devices were evaluated by analyzing a periodically acquired vegetative index data from aerial imaging. The results showed that MDI and LEPA were more efficient than LESA as indicated by their significantly higher coefficients of uniformity and higher application efficiencies. The second study evaluated soil water redistribution under MDI against those of LEPA and LESA. The effect of irrigation was found to be mostly limited to the top 60 cm of the soil profile for all the evaluated irrigation application technologies. MDI and LEPA showed the highest horizontal variation in water content, and water redistribution pattern of MDI was similar to LEPA. In the third study, the performance of MDI for corn production, in comparison to LESA and LEPA was conducted by comparing grain yield, water productivity, above ground biomass, leaf area index (LAI), and soil water content. In general, crop biophysical measurements under MDI were not significantly different from those under LEPA and LESA, and any marginal benefits of MDI were likely masked by rainfall. Hence, further evaluation of MDI is recommended under stringent water application conditions. The fourth study assessed MDI dripline spacing and length for different soil types.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第19589号 / 医博第4096号 / 新制||医||1014(附属図書館) / 32625 / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 大森 孝一, 教授 木村 剛, 教授 福田 和彦 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Com o propósito de avaliar o potencial de intrusão radicular e os efeitos da ocorrência de vácuo nas linhas de irrigação em diversos modelos de gotejadores, quando utilizados em irrigação subsuperficial, foram conduzidos três experimentos em condição de ambiente protegido. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos em vasos: um com a cultura da cana-de-açúcar; e o outro com o objetivo específico de avaliar a possibilidade de estabelecimento da cultura do feijão como padrão de ensaio para experimentos de suscetibilidade de gotejadores à intrusão radicular. Para esses dois experimentos, os tratamentos consistiram de 14 modelos de gotejadores de diferentes marcas comerciais, dos quais 7 do tipo não-compensante e 7 do tipo autocompensante de pressão; os modelos foram instalados em duas profundidades, 0,15 m e 0,30 m do nível da superfície (P15 e P30, respectivamente), e conduzidos em solo sob três condições de enraizamento: a)Úmido, no qual a irrigação era iniciada quando o potencial de água no solo atingia -30 kPa, medido através de tensiômetro, b) Seco, quando o potencial matricial da água no solo atingia -80 kPa e c) Sem cultivo (SC), no qual os vasos foram mantidos sem plantas, sendo utilizados para comparação das vazões determinadas nos vasos com culturas, tanto do experimento com cana-de-açúcar como com feijão, possibilitando, assim, isolar o efeito de outros fatores causadores de variação de vazão dos gotejadores que não a intrusão de raízes. O terceiro, conduzido nos mesmos vasos do feijão após finalizado o experimento inicial, simulou o efeito de 5 níveis de vácuo na vazão dos gotejadores, em função do sucção de partículas do solo. Os níveis de sucção avaliados foram -13, -20, -26, -53 e -80 kPa. Com o propósito de avaliar a capacidade de recuperação da vazão de gotejadores afetados pela sucção de partículas, foi efetuada uma leitura de vazão após 3 irrigações, de 1 hora cada. As leituras de vazão foram realizadas com freqüência mensal, por um período de 90 dias para o feijão, e de 270 dias para a cana-de-açúcar. No experimento com a cana-de-açúcar, os resultados obtidos mostraram diferenças marcantes no comportamento do gotejadores do tipo nãocompensante de pressão daqueles do tipo autocompensante e, dentro de cada tipo, diferenças estatisticamente significativas quanto à suscetibilidade à intrusão de raízes. Quanto ao efeito da intrusão e enterrio, os modelos autocompensantes apresentaram maior magnitude de variação da vazão em relação aos gotejadores não-compensantes, em todos os experimentos conduzidos. Nos modelos mais susceptíveis, observou-se maior nível de intrusão na condição de enraizamento úmido, embora esse comportamento não tenha sido estatisticamente significante na análise efetuada para a leitura de vazão efetuada no final do experimento, aos 270dias. Tanto para a cana como para o fe ijão, não foi observada diferença significativa no nível de intrusão de raízes em relação à profundidade de instalação dos gotejadores. Os resultados obtidos com a cultura do feijão indicam sua inadequabilidade para testes rápidos de suscetibilidade de gotejadores à intrusão de raízes. Evidenciou-se que as estratégias de barreira física devem ser definidas visando não apenas à prevenção da ocorrência da intrusão mas também, depois de efetivada a intrusão, a minimização da possibilidade de a raiz intrusa penetrar no interior da linha lateral de gotejadores, o que ampliaria o efeito da intrusão na malha hidráulica da parcela de irrigação; pequenas adequações em parâmetros da arquitetura ou no processo de montagem dos tubos gotejadores poderiam reduzir essa possibilidade. / In order to evaluate the potential of root intrusion and vacuum damage (flow disturbance) in subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), fourteen emitters were tested on three experiments under controlled environment (greenhouse and vase conditions). The first one was based on sugar-cane crop and the second one based on bean crop, aiming to establish this temporary crop (bean) as a reference plant in a future root intrusion standard test applied to SDI. Among the selected emitters from different manufactures, seven of them were no compensating drippers and the others pressure compensating drippers. The drippers were installed in two different depths: 0.15m and 0.30m from soil surface (P15 and P30) and conducted under three watering conditions: 1. Moist : irrigation started when the water potential in soil reached -30 kPa (tensiometer) 2. Dry, irrigation started when the water potential in soil reached -80 kPa, and 3. No crop / Moist (NOC) where the vases were kept without any crop (Control) with the same irrigation level of condition 1, being possible to isolate other factors than root intrusion, which could disturbed emitters flow rate. The third experiment was conducted after finalizing the experiment with the bean crop (same vases), simulating 5 levels of vacuum in the hydraulic network (condition reached just after closing parcel valves in the field), trying to measure the flow rate variation of emitters, related to particles suctioned from soil. The suction levels evaluated were -13, -20, -26, -53 and -80 kPa for a short time and flow rate was measured just after 3 hours of irrigation, in order to stimulate the self-cleaning processes of emitters before measuring the vacuum-disturbed flow rate. An electromagnetic flow meter was used during all experiment, in order to measure the individual flow rate of buried emitters in vases; flow rate readings were taken every month in the bean crop (90 days cycle) and in the sugar cane crop (270 days cycle). For the sugar-cane experiment, the root intrusion results showed remarkable differences between no compensating and pressure compensating drippers (statistically significant). The self-compensating models showed a larger flow rate variation, compared to the no compensating emitters. It was visually observed for some susceptible emitters a greater level of root intrusion under high soil moistur e content, although this behavior has not been statistically significant at the end of the sugar cane experiment (270th day). There were no significantly differences in root intrusion (either for sugar-cane or bean crops) related to the installation depth of emitters (15 and 30 cm). The obtained results do not recommend the use of a temporary crop (bean) as a reference plant for a standard test related to root intrusion, because it takes at least 6 month to detected significant root intrusion in SDI. The strategy of developing emitters physical barriers against root intrusion, should focus not only in the prevention of entering but also in the minimization of damage related to the intruded root inside the emitter, because in some circumstances it is possible to keep flow rate close to nominal rate even with roots inside the drippers.

Com o propósito de avaliar o potencial de intrusão radicular e os efeitos da ocorrência de vácuo nas linhas de irrigação em diversos modelos de gotejadores, quando utilizados em irrigação subsuperficial, foram conduzidos três experimentos em condição de ambiente protegido. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos em vasos: um com a cultura da cana-de-açúcar; e o outro com o objetivo específico de avaliar a possibilidade de estabelecimento da cultura do feijão como padrão de ensaio para experimentos de suscetibilidade de gotejadores à intrusão radicular. Para esses dois experimentos, os tratamentos consistiram de 14 modelos de gotejadores de diferentes marcas comerciais, dos quais 7 do tipo não-compensante e 7 do tipo autocompensante de pressão; os modelos foram instalados em duas profundidades, 0,15 m e 0,30 m do nível da superfície (P15 e P30, respectivamente), e conduzidos em solo sob três condições de enraizamento: a)Úmido, no qual a irrigação era iniciada quando o potencial de água no solo atingia -30 kPa, medido através de tensiômetro, b) Seco, quando o potencial matricial da água no solo atingia -80 kPa e c) Sem cultivo (SC), no qual os vasos foram mantidos sem plantas, sendo utilizados para comparação das vazões determinadas nos vasos com culturas, tanto do experimento com cana-de-açúcar como com feijão, possibilitando, assim, isolar o efeito de outros fatores causadores de variação de vazão dos gotejadores que não a intrusão de raízes. O terceiro, conduzido nos mesmos vasos do feijão após finalizado o experimento inicial, simulou o efeito de 5 níveis de vácuo na vazão dos gotejadores, em função do sucção de partículas do solo. Os níveis de sucção avaliados foram -13, -20, -26, -53 e -80 kPa. Com o propósito de avaliar a capacidade de recuperação da vazão de gotejadores afetados pela sucção de partículas, foi efetuada uma leitura de vazão após 3 irrigações, de 1 hora cada. As leituras de vazão foram realizadas com freqüência mensal, por um período de 90 dias para o feijão, e de 270 dias para a cana-de-açúcar. No experimento com a cana-de-açúcar, os resultados obtidos mostraram diferenças marcantes no comportamento do gotejadores do tipo nãocompensante de pressão daqueles do tipo autocompensante e, dentro de cada tipo, diferenças estatisticamente significativas quanto à suscetibilidade à intrusão de raízes. Quanto ao efeito da intrusão e enterrio, os modelos autocompensantes apresentaram maior magnitude de variação da vazão em relação aos gotejadores não-compensantes, em todos os experimentos conduzidos. Nos modelos mais susceptíveis, observou-se maior nível de intrusão na condição de enraizamento úmido, embora esse comportamento não tenha sido estatisticamente significante na análise efetuada para a leitura de vazão efetuada no final do experimento, aos 270dias. Tanto para a cana como para o fe ijão, não foi observada diferença significativa no nível de intrusão de raízes em relação à profundidade de instalação dos gotejadores. Os resultados obtidos com a cultura do feijão indicam sua inadequabilidade para testes rápidos de suscetibilidade de gotejadores à intrusão de raízes. Evidenciou-se que as estratégias de barreira física devem ser definidas visando não apenas à prevenção da ocorrência da intrusão mas também, depois de efetivada a intrusão, a minimização da possibilidade de a raiz intrusa penetrar no interior da linha lateral de gotejadores, o que ampliaria o efeito da intrusão na malha hidráulica da parcela de irrigação; pequenas adequações em parâmetros da arquitetura ou no processo de montagem dos tubos gotejadores poderiam reduzir essa possibilidade. / In order to evaluate the potential of root intrusion and vacuum damage (flow disturbance) in subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), fourteen emitters were tested on three experiments under controlled environment (greenhouse and vase conditions). The first one was based on sugar-cane crop and the second one based on bean crop, aiming to establish this temporary crop (bean) as a reference plant in a future root intrusion standard test applied to SDI. Among the selected emitters from different manufactures, seven of them were no compensating drippers and the others pressure compensating drippers. The drippers were installed in two different depths: 0.15m and 0.30m from soil surface (P15 and P30) and conducted under three watering conditions: 1. Moist : irrigation started when the water potential in soil reached -30 kPa (tensiometer) 2. Dry, irrigation started when the water potential in soil reached -80 kPa, and 3. No crop / Moist (NOC) where the vases were kept without any crop (Control) with the same irrigation level of condition 1, being possible to isolate other factors than root intrusion, which could disturbed emitters flow rate. The third experiment was conducted after finalizing the experiment with the bean crop (same vases), simulating 5 levels of vacuum in the hydraulic network (condition reached just after closing parcel valves in the field), trying to measure the flow rate variation of emitters, related to particles suctioned from soil. The suction levels evaluated were -13, -20, -26, -53 and -80 kPa for a short time and flow rate was measured just after 3 hours of irrigation, in order to stimulate the self-cleaning processes of emitters before measuring the vacuum-disturbed flow rate. An electromagnetic flow meter was used during all experiment, in order to measure the individual flow rate of buried emitters in vases; flow rate readings were taken every month in the bean crop (90 days cycle) and in the sugar cane crop (270 days cycle). For the sugar-cane experiment, the root intrusion results showed remarkable differences between no compensating and pressure compensating drippers (statistically significant). The self-compensating models showed a larger flow rate variation, compared to the no compensating emitters. It was visually observed for some susceptible emitters a greater level of root intrusion under high soil moistur e content, although this behavior has not been statistically significant at the end of the sugar cane experiment (270th day). There were no significantly differences in root intrusion (either for sugar-cane or bean crops) related to the installation depth of emitters (15 and 30 cm). The obtained results do not recommend the use of a temporary crop (bean) as a reference plant for a standard test related to root intrusion, because it takes at least 6 month to detected significant root intrusion in SDI. The strategy of developing emitters physical barriers against root intrusion, should focus not only in the prevention of entering but also in the minimization of damage related to the intruded root inside the emitter, because in some circumstances it is possible to keep flow rate close to nominal rate even with roots inside the drippers.