Previous studies have shown that Medicare Part D beneficiaries tend not to switch plans even though they are encouraged to reevaluate their current plans and switch plans if needed every year. Little is known about why this "plan stickiness" occurs, so there is a critical need to better understand this non-switching behavior. This dissertation project aimed to describe how Part D beneficiaries processed information and how they perceived the plan switching process. It also aimed to describe how switchers and non-switchers were different and to test a model of Part D plan information processing that adapted from Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability (MOA) model. To achieve these objectives, this study had a cross-sectional descriptive design and used a mixed- methods approach consisting of focus groups, interviews, and mailed survey. The qualitative study sample was recruited from two cities in Iowa and transcripts of audio-recorded discussions were analyzed. The population studied in the quantitative phase was voter registered Iowa Part D beneficiaries who were older than 65 and did not receive Low Income Subsidies (LIS). Stratified random sampling was used to identify survey subjects. An eight page survey assessing factors related to Part D plan decisions was developed and mailed to 2,250 subjects, with reminder postcards as well as phone calls used to increase response rate. Finally, confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM) were used to test a model of Part D plan information processing. A total of 16 participants from three focus groups and three interviews were included in the qualitative analysis. The results indicated that Part D beneficiaries processed different amounts of information even though they made the same decision (i.e. non-switching); whether to receive help from others in reviewing coverage options emerged as an important theme in the plan switching decision. A usable response rate of 22.5 percent was obtained. Of this sample, 264 respondents were non-LIS Part D beneficiaries and were used for further analysis. About one fifth of the sample switched plan between 2012 and 2013, supporting existing literature that has reported a low plan switching rate. Switchers and non-switchers had few demographic differences, but twice as many switchers as non-switchers received help from others in reviewing coverage options. The results from the SEM analysis indicated that those who had lower risk perception about plan switching, higher motivation, and higher self-efficacy were likely to read larger amounts of plan information. They also indicted that higher perceived risk, involvement, and self-efficacy were positively associated with motivation to process plan information. The findings of this dissertation suggest that plan stickiness has two types - active (i.e. informed choice) and passive (i.e. inertia) - depending on the amount of information processed, which was determined by beneficiaries' levels of perceived risk, motivation, self-efficacy, and needs. Furthermore, findings suggest that whether to receive help in understanding plan information may play a large role in leading informed beneficiaries to act on their knowledge and switch plans. The present study is the first to integrate the concept of information processing to understand Part D beneficiaries' plan switching decisions and the first to examine psychological factors affecting beneficiaries' information processing as well as their plan switching decisions. Study findings will help policy makers developing efficient communication strategies with beneficiaries to help them to make informed choices.

Since its inception in 2003, Medicare Part D has become the largest addition to the Medicare benefit since it was signed into law in 1965. Despite this novel prescription drug coverage, the design and benefit structure of Medicare Part D has been challenging for beneficiaries and healthcare providers alike. Beneficiaries have been faced with a plethora of drug plan offerings. Additionally, the unique benefit structure and annual variation in plan offerings and plan parameters have left beneficiaries unaware of gaps in coverage and reluctant to re-evaluate plan offerings. Despite these issues, to date the total out-of-pocket costs for beneficiaries enrolled in Medicare Part D have not been examined. To mitigate this void, three studies were conducted to determine trends in the total out-of-pocket costs incurred by Medicare beneficiaries enrolled in Medicare Part D prescription drug plans. Pharmacy claims data of 50 randomly sampled patients from a database of Medicare-eligible individuals were used to generate medication profiles. To maintain a patient-perspective approach, these profiles were then entered into the Plan Finder Tool on the Medicare website in order to determine the estimated annual costs for each stand-alone prescription drug plan in each Medicare region. It was determined that Medicare Part D plan costs increased from 2007 to 2008 in most regions, however in 13 of 34 regions patients may not have paid more if they were enrolled in the lowest cost plan each year. Based on these findings, the opportunity cost of neglecting to re-evaluate prescription drug plan offerings for 2008 was examined. A significant increase ranging from $277 to $562 was observed nationally if patients did not switch to the lowest cost plan. Only 12% of the plans remained the lowest cost plan in 2008. Lastly, prescription drug plan cost trends in California were examined from 2007 to 2009 and confirmed that the estimated annual cost of a plan was the most consistent plan parameter. Collectively these studies indicate that Medicare Part D beneficiaries must annually re-evaluate all prescription drug plan offerings in order to minimize out-of-pocket drug costs.

En 1997, dans un souci de justice sociale et de solidarité entre tous les québécois, le gouvernement a instauré un Régime général d’assurance médicaments (RGAM) devant permettre de fournir à moindre coût et de manière équitable, des médicaments prescrits assurant une meilleure prise en charge de la maladie des individus. Depuis sa mise en place, le rythme soutenu d’évolution des coûts des médicaments remboursés par le Régime est le sujet d’un nombre croissant de débats. Le Québec ne fait pas figure d’exception car au cours des dernières décennies, la croissance des dépenses de médicaments des régimes d’assurance médicaments des pays industrialisés a connu un rythme de progression élevé, cela malgré l’instauration successive de mécanismes de régulation ciblant une utilisation optimale des médicaments et un meilleur contrôle de la trajectoire de leurs dépenses. La recherche propose une réflexion sur les cadres communs d’action dans lesquels ces outils de régulation sont implantés et évoluent. Elle s’intéresse à l’ensemble des facteurs relationnels et contextuels qui les constituent. Le devis de recherche s’appuie sur une étude de cas unique qu’est le processus menant à l’utilisation du médicament prescrit couvert par le RGAM. Il se compose de trois unités d’analyse identifiées comme étant des cibles importantes de régulation : l’inscription du médicament à la liste du RGAM, la prescription et l’accès au médicament couvert par le Régime. La perspective conceptuelle retenue est celle de l’analyse stratégique de Crozier et Friedberg (1987). La démarche analytique s’appuie sur des entrevues réalisées auprès des régulateurs, de fabricants de médicaments brevetés et de génériques, de médecins, de pharmaciens et de patients impliqués dans l’utilisation des médicaments remboursés par le RGAM et sur une revue du cadre réglementaire concernant ces acteurs, le médicament d’ordonnance et le RGAM. La recherche décrit et analyse la structuration du processus menant à l’utilisation du médicament couvert par le RGAM. Elle conduit au développement d’un construit organisationnel- le système d’action concret- fondé sur les interdépendances des cinq groupes d’acteurs et les relations de pouvoir qu’ils entretiennent entre eux. Ceux-ci évoluent dans des contextes organisationnels singuliers constitués d’enjeux, de stratégies et de ressources. Ils développent diverses stratégies pour accroître leurs possibilités d’action (capacités stratégiques) face aux problèmes qu’ils ont à résoudre. Les capacités stratégiques, inégales entre les groupes d’acteurs, découlent des relations de pouvoir qu’ils exercent entre eux et les amènent à occuper des positions différentes dans le système d’action concret. La recherche démontre qu’en fonction des capacités stratégiques dont ils disposent, les acteurs sont portés à s’approprier certaines règles en tentant de les influencer, de les contourner ou de ne pas les respecter. La connaissance empirique des cadres communs d’action permet d’établir les bases d’un système d’action concret dans un contexte de « phénomène organisation » (Friedberg, 1997). Cette connaissance d’une part, établit que les retombées de certaines stratégies d’acteurs peuvent s’avérer peu compatibles avec les objectifs du RGAM et, d’autre part, pose les limites de certains mécanismes de régulation en vigueur tout en questionnant les façons de concevoir la régulation dans un système complexe. / In 1997, the Quebec government, in its desire for social justice and solidarity among all Quebecers, introduced the Régime général d’assurance médicaments (General Prescription Drug Insurance Plan) (RGAM) to provide reasonable and fair access to medication to better manage the health of individuals. Since the establishment of the Plan, the steady rise in drug costs has been the subject of a growing number of debates. Quebec is not an exception because in recent decades, the increase in drug expenditures of drug plans in industrialized countries has grown exponentially despite the successive introduction of regulatory mechanisms aiming to better control drug use and its expenditure trajectory. The study proposes a reflection on the common frameworks of action in which the regulatory mechanisms of prescription drug expenditures covered by the RGAM are established and evolve. The study focuses on the set of relational and contextual factors that constitute these frameworks. The research design is based on a single case study, that of the process leading to the use of prescription drugs covered by the RGAM. It consists of three units of analysis identified as important targets of regulation: registration of medications on the RGAM drug list, prescription, and access to medications covered by the Plan. The conceptual perspective adopted is the strategic analysis of Crozier & Friedberg (1987). The analysis is based on interviews with regulators, manufacturers of patented drugs and generics, physicians, pharmacists, and patients involved in the use of medications reimbursed by the RGAM, and on a review of the regulatory system concerning these actors, prescription drugs, and the RGAM. The study describes and analyzes the structure of the process leading to the use of medications covered by the RGAM. The study leads to the development of an organizational construct—a concrete action system—based on the interdependencies of the five groups of actors and the power relations that exist between them. These actors operate in unique organizational contexts consisting of challenges, strategies, and resources. The actors develop various strategies to increase their possibilities for action (strategic capabilities) toward the problems they must solve. These strategic capabilities, which are unequal between the groups of actors, stem from the power relations that exist between the actors and lead them to occupy different positions in the concrete action system. The study demonstrates that, based on the strategic capabilities they have, the actors are likely to appropriate certain rules by attempting to influence them, circumvent them, or not respect them. Empirical knowledge of the common frameworks of action allows establishing the basis for a concrete action system in the context of the “organization phenomenon” (Friedberg, 1997). This knowledge, on the one hand, establishes that the impact of certain strategies of the actors may be incompatible with the objectives of the RGAM, and on the other hand, imposes limits on certain regulatory mechanisms in force, while questioning how regulations are conceived in a complex system.

En 1997, dans un souci de justice sociale et de solidarité entre tous les québécois, le gouvernement a instauré un Régime général d’assurance médicaments (RGAM) devant permettre de fournir à moindre coût et de manière équitable, des médicaments prescrits assurant une meilleure prise en charge de la maladie des individus. Depuis sa mise en place, le rythme soutenu d’évolution des coûts des médicaments remboursés par le Régime est le sujet d’un nombre croissant de débats. Le Québec ne fait pas figure d’exception car au cours des dernières décennies, la croissance des dépenses de médicaments des régimes d’assurance médicaments des pays industrialisés a connu un rythme de progression élevé, cela malgré l’instauration successive de mécanismes de régulation ciblant une utilisation optimale des médicaments et un meilleur contrôle de la trajectoire de leurs dépenses. La recherche propose une réflexion sur les cadres communs d’action dans lesquels ces outils de régulation sont implantés et évoluent. Elle s’intéresse à l’ensemble des facteurs relationnels et contextuels qui les constituent. Le devis de recherche s’appuie sur une étude de cas unique qu’est le processus menant à l’utilisation du médicament prescrit couvert par le RGAM. Il se compose de trois unités d’analyse identifiées comme étant des cibles importantes de régulation : l’inscription du médicament à la liste du RGAM, la prescription et l’accès au médicament couvert par le Régime. La perspective conceptuelle retenue est celle de l’analyse stratégique de Crozier et Friedberg (1987). La démarche analytique s’appuie sur des entrevues réalisées auprès des régulateurs, de fabricants de médicaments brevetés et de génériques, de médecins, de pharmaciens et de patients impliqués dans l’utilisation des médicaments remboursés par le RGAM et sur une revue du cadre réglementaire concernant ces acteurs, le médicament d’ordonnance et le RGAM. La recherche décrit et analyse la structuration du processus menant à l’utilisation du médicament couvert par le RGAM. Elle conduit au développement d’un construit organisationnel- le système d’action concret- fondé sur les interdépendances des cinq groupes d’acteurs et les relations de pouvoir qu’ils entretiennent entre eux. Ceux-ci évoluent dans des contextes organisationnels singuliers constitués d’enjeux, de stratégies et de ressources. Ils développent diverses stratégies pour accroître leurs possibilités d’action (capacités stratégiques) face aux problèmes qu’ils ont à résoudre. Les capacités stratégiques, inégales entre les groupes d’acteurs, découlent des relations de pouvoir qu’ils exercent entre eux et les amènent à occuper des positions différentes dans le système d’action concret. La recherche démontre qu’en fonction des capacités stratégiques dont ils disposent, les acteurs sont portés à s’approprier certaines règles en tentant de les influencer, de les contourner ou de ne pas les respecter. La connaissance empirique des cadres communs d’action permet d’établir les bases d’un système d’action concret dans un contexte de « phénomène organisation » (Friedberg, 1997). Cette connaissance d’une part, établit que les retombées de certaines stratégies d’acteurs peuvent s’avérer peu compatibles avec les objectifs du RGAM et, d’autre part, pose les limites de certains mécanismes de régulation en vigueur tout en questionnant les façons de concevoir la régulation dans un système complexe. / In 1997, the Quebec government, in its desire for social justice and solidarity among all Quebecers, introduced the Régime général d’assurance médicaments (General Prescription Drug Insurance Plan) (RGAM) to provide reasonable and fair access to medication to better manage the health of individuals. Since the establishment of the Plan, the steady rise in drug costs has been the subject of a growing number of debates. Quebec is not an exception because in recent decades, the increase in drug expenditures of drug plans in industrialized countries has grown exponentially despite the successive introduction of regulatory mechanisms aiming to better control drug use and its expenditure trajectory. The study proposes a reflection on the common frameworks of action in which the regulatory mechanisms of prescription drug expenditures covered by the RGAM are established and evolve. The study focuses on the set of relational and contextual factors that constitute these frameworks. The research design is based on a single case study, that of the process leading to the use of prescription drugs covered by the RGAM. It consists of three units of analysis identified as important targets of regulation: registration of medications on the RGAM drug list, prescription, and access to medications covered by the Plan. The conceptual perspective adopted is the strategic analysis of Crozier & Friedberg (1987). The analysis is based on interviews with regulators, manufacturers of patented drugs and generics, physicians, pharmacists, and patients involved in the use of medications reimbursed by the RGAM, and on a review of the regulatory system concerning these actors, prescription drugs, and the RGAM. The study describes and analyzes the structure of the process leading to the use of medications covered by the RGAM. The study leads to the development of an organizational construct—a concrete action system—based on the interdependencies of the five groups of actors and the power relations that exist between them. These actors operate in unique organizational contexts consisting of challenges, strategies, and resources. The actors develop various strategies to increase their possibilities for action (strategic capabilities) toward the problems they must solve. These strategic capabilities, which are unequal between the groups of actors, stem from the power relations that exist between the actors and lead them to occupy different positions in the concrete action system. The study demonstrates that, based on the strategic capabilities they have, the actors are likely to appropriate certain rules by attempting to influence them, circumvent them, or not respect them. Empirical knowledge of the common frameworks of action allows establishing the basis for a concrete action system in the context of the “organization phenomenon” (Friedberg, 1997). This knowledge, on the one hand, establishes that the impact of certain strategies of the actors may be incompatible with the objectives of the RGAM, and on the other hand, imposes limits on certain regulatory mechanisms in force, while questioning how regulations are conceived in a complex system.

<p>This thesis comprises three essays that empirically investigate important issues in two areas of health economics: physician labour supply and health insurance policy interventions.</p> <p>In the first essay, gendered associations between family status and physician labour supply are explored in the Canadian labour market, where physicians are paid according to a common fee schedule and have substantial discretion in setting their hours of work. Data from 1991 to 2006 show no gender difference in physician labour supply after controlling for family status. Male and female physicians have statistically indistinguishable hours of work when never married and without children. Married male physicians, however, have higher market hours than unmarried male physicians and parenthood either increases their hours or leaves them unchanged. In contrast, married female physicians have lower market hours than unmarried physicians and parenthood substantially lowers market hours. Little change over time in these patterns is observed for males, but for females two offsetting trends are observed: the magnitude of the marriage-hours effect declined, whereas that for motherhood increased. Preferences and/or social norms induce substantially different labour market outcome across the sexes. In terms of work at home, the presence of children is associated with higher hours for male physicians, but for females the hours increase is at least twice as large. A male physician’s spouse is much less likely to be employed in the presence of children, and if employed, has lower market hours in the presence of children. In contrast, a female physician’s spouse is more likely to be employed in the presence of children, and if employed, has slightly lower market hours in the presence of children. Both male and female physicians have lower hours of work when married to another physician.</p> <p>This second essay examines the impacts of a mandatory, universal prescription drug insurance program on health care utilization and health outcomes in a public health care system with free physician and hospital services. Beginning in 1997, all residents of the province of Quebec, Canada, were required by law to have drug insurance coverage. Under this program, all persons under age 65 who are eligible for a private plan are required to join that plan, while the public prescription drug insurance plan covers all Quebecers who are not eligible for a private plan. Using the National Population Health Survey from 1994 to 2003, we find that the mandatory program substantially increased drug coverage among the general population. The program also increased medication use and general practitioner visits but had little effect on specialist visits and hospitalization. Findings from quantile regressions suggest that there was a large improvement in the health status of less healthy individuals. Further analysis by pre-policy drug insurance status and the presence of chronic conditions reveals a marked increase in the probability of taking medication and visiting a general practitioner among the previously uninsured and those with a chronic condition. We also find evidence of positive health gains among the chronically ill.</p> <p>The third essay examines the impact of delisting routine eye exam services on patient eye care utilization and on providers’ labour market outcomes in a public health care system. Beginning in the early 1990s, provincial governments in Canada started to de-insure routine eye examinations from the basket of publicly funded health care services. We exploit delisting policy changes across Canadian provinces to estimate the impact of delisting from the supply- and demand-sides. Demand side analysis using the National Population Health Survey and Canadian Community Health Survey data suggests that the delisting of eye exams for the working age population decreased the probability of using eye care among this population group. However, the number of visits among those who continued to use eye care services was not affected. We also find suggestive evidence that the delisting policies targeted at the working age population were associated with increased eye care utilization among the elderly patients. Using the optometrist sample from the Canadian census data we find that the delisting of eye exams decreased optometrists’ weekly work hours while raised their annual work weeks. There was no statistically significant effect on optometrists’ income.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Au Québec, il est mandatoire d’avoir une assurance médicaments soit privée ou publique. De plus, le coût d’un médicament a trois composantes : le prix de la molécule, la marge bénéficiaire du grossiste et l’honoraire du pharmacien. Les deux premières composantes sont fixes et déterminées par la Régie de l’assurance médicaments du Québec (RAMQ) pour les personnes couvertes par les régimes privés d’assurance médicaments ou le régime public d’assurance médicaments (RPAM). L’honoraire du pharmacien est déterminé par la RAMQ pour les personnes couvertes par le RPAM (entre 8,50$ et 9,49$) alors qu’il est librement déterminé par le pharmacien propriétaire pour les personnes couvertes par les régimes privés d’assurance médicaments ce qui donne lieu à des différences dans le coût des médicaments. Les objectifs de ce mémoire étaient d’estimer la différence de coût et des dépenses des médicaments entre les patients couverts par les régimes privés d’assurance médicaments et le RPAM au Québec. Afin de répondre aux objectifs, les ordonnances remplies entre le 1er janvier 2015 et le 23 mai 2019 ont été sélectionnées de reMed, une banque de données qui contient l’information sur les ordonnances remplies par d’un échantillon de Québécois. Des strates d’ordonnances de médicaments ont été créées afin d’avoir à l’intérieur de chaque strate le même médicament (même DIN), même quantité et durée prescrites, acheté à la même pharmacie avec la même Liste des médicaments de la RAMQ. Chaque strate d’ordonnances remplies par les patients couverts par un régime privé d’assurance médicaments a été appariée à une strate d’ordonnances remplies par des patients couverts par le RPAM sur les mêmes critères utilisés pour la stratification. Des modèles de régression linéaires ont été utilisés afin d’estimer la différence de coût et de dépenses entre les régimes privés d’assurance médicaments et le RPAM. Basée sur 38 896 strates (un total de 162 019 ordonnances), l’étude a montré que globalement le coût d’une ordonnance de médicament est en moyenne 9,35$ (95% CI: 5,58 ; 13,01) plus élevé pour les patients couverts par les régimes privés d’assurance médicaments que pour ceux couverts par le RPAM (62,34$ vs 52,99$). Quant aux dépenses des patients pour une ordonnance de médicament, les patients couverts par un régime privé d’assurance médicaments déboursaient 1,01$ (95% CI: -1,22 ; -0,80) moins que ceux couverts par le RPAM (6.94$ vs 7.95$). Cette étude a montré qu’en moyenne le coût des médicaments est plus élevé et que les dépenses sont légèrement plus faibles pour les patients couverts par les régimes privés d’assurance médicaments. Donc, ces résultats seront utiles pour les décideurs et les autorités gouvernementales lorsqu’ils prendront des décisions éclairées sur les modalités d’assurance au Québec. / In the province of Quebec, it’s mandatory to have a drug insurance either private or public. Also, drug cost in Quebec has three components: ingredient list price, wholesaler markup and dispensing fee. The first two components are regulated by the Prescription drug plan (PDP) and are the same for publicly and privately insured patients. The third component is fixed (between CAD$8.50 and CAD$9.49) and regulated by the PDP for publicly insured patients while it is determined freely by the pharmacy owner for privately insured patients. The objectives of this thesis were to estimate the average difference for both drug and out-of-pocket costs between patients covered by private drug plans and the PDP in Quebec. We used a sample of prescriptions filled between January 1st, 2015 and May 23rd , 2019 selected from reMed, a drug claims database of Quebecers. We created strata of prescriptions filled by privately insured patients based on the DIN, quantity dispensed, number of days of supply, pharmacy identifier and a date corresponding to a publication of RAMQ’s List of Medications. Then, we matched each stratum filled by privately insured patients with a stratum of prescriptions filled by publicly insured patients based on the same stratification criteria. The differences in drug cost and out-of-pocket expenses between private and public drug insurance were analyzed with linear regression models. Based on 38 896 strata of prescriptions (162 019 prescriptions in total), we observed that privately insured patients had to pay CAD$9.35 (95% CI: 5.58 ; 13.01) more on average per drug prescription than publicly insured patients (CAD$62.34 vs CAD$52.99), representing a difference of 17.6%. We also found that out-of-pocket expenses were on average CAD$1.01 (95% CI: -1.22 ; -0.80) lower per drug prescription for privately than publicly insured patients (CAD$6.94 vs CAD$7.95). This study showed that, on average, drug cost is substantially higher and out-of-pocket slightly lower for privately insured Quebecers. Knowing that adherence is affected by drug cost, these results will be useful to help public health authorities to make informed decisions about drug insurance policies.