Dung beetles is a group of coprophagous beetles in the family Scarabaeidae. Dung beetles have an important function by improving nutrient circulation and biological control of parasites. Dung is a short-lived resource, making dung beetles tied to habitats continuously grazed. Decline in pasture combined with shorter grazing seasons has resulted in a decrease in available dung. Other reasons can be the use of chemicals to control internal parasites on the grazing animals. This has contributed to the fact that half of the dung beetles in Sweden are endangered. The aim of the present study was to analyze data on dung beetles from the County Administration Board in Östergötland and see if species communities have changed between 2001-2019. In addition, the effect of sand as soil type was studied by comparing the species richness between pastures with and without sand. Analysis whether there was any variation among species richness and species communities depending of grazing animals was also performed. Results showed that the number of species had increased over time and that changes in species communities had occurred. Pastures with sand had more species, however, the amount of sand in the nearest surroundings was of less importance. Dung beetles were found to have a preference when choosing dung-type. Pastures with dung from multiple species of grazing animals were found having the highest species richness. Studies on this would clarify even further what seems to favor dung beetles, this could then be applied to other areas to counteract the loss of species.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Microbiology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Biofuel production from lignocellulose material is an attractive alternative to fossil fuel. The use of lignocellulose material for biofuel production is imperative because of the numerous advantages that it offers. Biofuel is environmentally friendly and in developing countries such as South Africa, it has the potential to reduce the use of imported fuel and create jobs. Currently, several constraints are affecting the implementation of biofuel. One of the constraints is the cost-effectiveness and the efficiency of the enzymes involved in the enzymatic degradation of lignocellulose polymers to monomers, which can further be fermented to bioethanol. The potential way to reduce enzymatic degradation cost could be by supplementing the fungal enzymes with accessory enzymes such as endo-xylanase. The enzyme production cost is also dependent on the carbon source used. Lignocellulose materials that are regarded as waste must be assed for their use as enzyme inducer carbon sources and as biomass for biofuel production. This is a potential route that will reduce enzyme and biofuel production costs. Biofuel production cost can further be reduced by finding a yeast that can ferment xylose and ferment in the presence of inhibitors released during lignocellulose pretreatment. This study sought to tackle the enzymatic hydrolysis constraints and also search for xylose-fermenting yeast by exploring the gut microbiota of dung beetle. The gut of the dung beetle has recently received great attention since it is proposed to be a bioreactor for lignocellulolytic microorganisms that can be used in biofuel applications. This is because dung beetles feed on the dung of herbivorous animals and the dung is composed of 80% undigested plant material. In this study the guts of four Scarabaeidae dung beetles Kheper nigroanaeus Boheman, Heteronitis castelnaui, Pachylomerus femoralis, Anachalcos convexus and dung beetle larvae, Euoniticellus intermedius were screened for hemicellulolytic fungi and xylose-fermenting yeast. Hundred and thirty-two yeast isolates and two-hundred and twenty-two filamentous fungi were isolated and identified using ITS and D1/D2 regions. The yeast isolates were assigned to 8 genera and 18 species, Trichosporon was the most dominant genus while Candida tropicalis was the most dominant specie. Some of the yeast isolates were identified as uncultured fungi. This yeast must be characterised to be certain if they are novel species. The fungal isolates were assigned to 12 genera and 25 species, Aspergillus was the most dominant genus while Hypocrea lixii was the most dominant specie. The yeast isolated could assimilate xylose and could grow at a maximum temperature of 40 °C. Furthermore, these yeast isolates could also grow in the presence of 3 g/L acetic acid. Most of the fungal isolates had xylanolytic activity. The phylogenetic analysis revealed close genetic relatedness between isolates from the different dung beetle species and dung beetle larvae. The profile of the fungal genera was similar in the different dung beetles. Both guts and the larvae had Aspergillus, Hypocrea, Trichoderma, Talaromyces and Penicillium. The filamentous fungi that showed good xylanolytic activity were further screened for their ability to produce xylanase enzyme using thatch grass as an inductive carbon source. Thatch grass was selected in this study since it is in-house plant-based biomass. Thatch grass is abundantly available in South Africa; it is used for animal grazing but the more it grows it loses its nutritional content. Once it reaches this stage, it is no longer used and most of it is burnt. The fire from burning grass contains higher levels of nitrogen-containing chemicals that pollute the environment. Its compositional analysis (cellulose 46%, hemicellulose 27% and lignin 10%) also attributed to its selection as potential inductive carbon and attractive lignocellulose biomass for biofuel production. The higher xylanase activity of 283.43, 270 and 287.03 nkat/ml were observed from Aspergillus fumigatus L1XYL9 (Euoniticellus intermedius larvae), Hypocrea lixii AB2A3 and Neosartotya sp AB2XYL20 (Anachalcos convexus), respectively. This was achieved when acid pretreated thatch grass was used as an inductive carbon source. Aspergillus fumigatus L1XYL9 (Euoniticellus intermedius larvae), Hypocrea lixii AB2A3 and Neosartotya sp AB2XYL20 (Anachalcos convexus) showed xylanase activity of 393,22, 313,06 and 200 nkat/ml when grown on synthetic xylan. Neosartotya sp AB2XYL20 showed higher xylanase activity on thatch grass. The suitable production process for xylanase enzyme on acid pretreated thatch grass was assessed by conducting a comparative study on solid-state and submerged fermentation using L1XYL9 (Euoniticellus intermedius larvae), Hypocrea lixii AB2A3 and Neosartotya sp AB2XYL20 (Anachalcos convexus) as the best xylanase producer on acid pretreated thatch grass. The strain showed better xylanase activity when submerged fermentation was used. In this study, Hypocrea lixii AB2A3 was selected for further studies since it was the most dominant species and also showed good xylanase activity. Thatch grass was pretreated differently to evaluate the suitable chemical for pretreating thatch grass. Thatch grass was pretreated with dilute sulphuric acid 1.2% and maintained the pH of 5.5 by using sodium hydroxide while another batch was pretreated the same way and was washed with distilled water till pH of 5.5. The other batch was then pretreated with ammonium solution and was also washed with distilled water to maintain a pH of 5.5. The above-mentioned pretreated thatch grass was tested as an inductive carbon source as well as untreated thatch grass. The xylanase activity was determined to assess a good inductive carbon. All the thatch grass pretreated and washed with distilled water showed very low xylanase activity. The untreated thatch grass resulted in lower xylanase activity as compared to xylanase activity achieved when pretreated thatch grass was used. Parameters such as agitation speed and initial inoculum size were also assessed during xylanase production by Hypocrea lixii AB2A3 on acid pretreated thatch grass. Xylanase activity increased from 525 nkat/ml (Inoculum size 2×106 spore/ml and agitation speed 150 rpm) to 584.8 nkat/ml (Inoculum size 2×106 spore/ml and agitation speed 200 rpm). The crude xylanase from Hypocrea lixii AB2A3 was used to hydrolyse acid pretreated thatch grass. This resultant in xylose yield of 138 mg/g of substrate and glucose yield of 49 mg/g of substrate. Crude xylanase was mixed with commercial celluclast™. This enzyme mixture resulted in a xylose yield of 128 mg/g substrate and a glucose yield of 549 mg/g of substrate. The results obtained in this study show that indeed gut of the dung beetles and dung beetle larvae are a rich source of microorganisms that can play an important role in biofuel application and remediating the environment by degrading plant-based biomass regarded as waste into valuable products. It is imperative to evaluate the gut microbiota of dung beetles from different regions in South Africa for their application in the biofuel industry to reinforce its implementation. Thatch grass is a potential inductive carbon and lignocellulose biomass for biofuel production. / NRF (National Research Foundation)

La faune des bousiers des hautes montagnes du Mexique a été encore très peu étudiée. Des travaux ponctuels avaient été réalisés pour certaines montagnes, mais une analyse approfondie et simultanée de plusieurs massifs montagneux n'avait jamais été faite auparavant, en particulier avec une double approche, écologique et historique. Les chaînes montagneuses sont des systèmes extrêmement favorables pour analyser les influences biogéographiques et les interactions écologiques dans les assemblages d'espèces. L'objectif de cette thèse est de décrire et d'analyser la distribution et la richesse des Scarabaeinae, Geotrupinae et Aphodiinae de quatre massifs volcaniques dans la partie Est du Système Volcanique Transversal (SVT), qui se trouve dans la Zone de Transition Mexicaine (ZTM). Les zones de transition sont des régions remarquables où différentes lignées évolutives coexistent. Les montagnes échantillonnées sont La Malinche, le Cofre de Perote, le Pico de Orizaba et la Sierra Negra. Il s'agit de volcans situés dans la partie Est du SVT. La Malinche est séparée des trois autres volcans, lesquels présentent une certaine connectivité entre eux. L'importance de notre travail est basée sur le fait qu'il s'agit aussi du premier échantillonnage systématique effectué simultanément au Pico de Orizaba, à la Sierra Negra et à La Malinche, assorti d'une approche écologique et biogéographique. Pour chaque massif, nous avons utilisé trois techniques complémentaires d'échantillonnage : pièges appâtés avec des excréments, une collecte directe dans les stations et l'excavation des terriers des gauphres (rongeurs) pour y trouver les coléoptères associés à leurs déjections. Pour chaque volcan l'échantillonnage a été conduit à deux niveaux d'altitude, aux environ de 2800 m et à environ 3400 m, en prenant en compte les deux versants de chaque montagne, au vent (humide) et sous le vent (sec). L'échantillonnage a été réalisé durant trois années consécutives (2011 à 2013), pendant la saison des pluies (juin, juillet, août). Après la collecte et l'identification des coléoptères, nous avons comparé les affinités biogéographiques des communautés de bousiers de chaque massif. Les différences de composition et d'abondance ont montré que les affinités néarctiques, paléoaméricaines et mésoaméricaines de montagne prédominent dans ces massifs. L'abondance et la richesse étaient maximales aux altitudes moyennes et sur les versants au vent. La colonisation horizontale par les espèces est prédominantepour ces volcans. Plusieurs espèces nouvelles pour la science ont été découvertes grâce à ce travail : trois coléoptères coprophages (un Onthophagus et deux Aphodius), ainsi que six espèces nouvelles d'acariens phorétiques. D'une manière générale, les espèces montagnardes ont une dispersion ensuivant les chaines de montagnes ou l'Altiplano (Haut Plateau). Les espèces d'origine néotropicale présentent une distribution plus large et se trouvent plutôt à plus basse altitude. Quelques espèces avec des affinités pour le Haut Plateau se retrouvent à La Malinche sur le versant sous le vent et à une altitude moyenne. Les résultats ont permis de mieux définir la répartition des genres néarctiques, paléoaméricains et mésoaméricains de montagne dans le SVT, principalement pour les Aphodiinae. Ce travail constitue une base solide pour la connaissance de la distribution de cette faune dans ces massifs montagneux qui n'avaient jamais été étudiés en profondeur au Mexique. / High mountains' dung beetles fauna was still little studied. Punctual works have been done for some mountains, but a deep and simultaneous analysis that includes several mountains has never been done before, especially with a dual approach, ecological and historical. Mountain ranges are extremely favorable systems to analyze biogeographic influences and ecological interactions in species assemblages. This thesis objective is to describe and analyze the richness and distribution of Scarabaeinae, Geotrupinae and Aphodiinae of four volcanoes in the eastern part of the Trans- Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB), located in the Mexican Transition Zone (MTZ). Transition zones are remarkable regions where different evolutionary lineages coexist. Sampled mountains are La Malinche, Cofre de PEROTE, Pico de Orizaba and Sierra Negra. These volcanoes are located in the Eastern part of the TMVB. Malinche is separated from the other three mountains which have certain connectivity between them. The importance of our work is based on the fact that it is the first systematic and simultaneous sampling performed at Pico de Orizaba, Sierra Negra and La Malinche, with both an ecological and biogeographic approach. For each mountain, we used three complementary sampling techniques, baited traps with feces, direct collection at each of the stations, and excavation of pocket gopher's burrows, to find the dung beetles associated with their droppings. For each mountain, the sampling was conducted at two altitude levels, one about 2800 meters and another one of about 3400 meters, taking into account both sides of each mountain, windward (wet) and leeward (dry). Sampling was conducted during rainy season (June to August) for three consecutive years (2011-2013). After the collection and identification of beetles, the biogeographic affinities of the dung beetles' communities of each mountain were compared. The differences in composition and abundance showed that the predominant pattern affinities are the Nearctic, Mountain Paleomaerican and Mountain Mesoamerican patterns. Abundance and richness was higher in the middle elevations and in the windward side. Horizontal colonization is predominant in these four volcanoes. Tree new dung beetles' species for science were discovered thanks to this work (one Onthophagus and two Aphodiinae) as well as six phoretic mite new species. In general, montane species have a dispersion following the mountain ranges or the high lands of the High Plateau. Species with a Neotropical affinity were found to have a wider distribution and found instead at the low altitude range. The High Plateau affinity species were found mainly at the leeward side and at the lower altitude range in La Malinche. These results have helped to define the distribution of Nearctic, Montane Paleoamerican and Montane Mesoamerican genera in the SVT, mainly for Aphodiinae. This work provides a solid basis of knowledge of the distribution of this fauna in these four mountains, which had never been studied extensively in Mexico.

En regardant de près les outils juridiques et autres leviers, pour la conservation de la biodiversité, il semblerait que les invertébrés, et notamment les insectes, soient minoritaires ou absents. Ce constat est d’autant plus paradoxal lorsque l’on sait que 2/3 de la diversité biologique est composée par des insectes. Comment cette diversité essentielle pour le fonctionnement des écosystèmes se retrouve-t-elle dans l’angle mort de la conservation ?La première réponse avancée est le manque d’outils techniques pour étudier ces organismes petits et relativement insaisissables. La rencontre avec les nouvelles méthodes techniques pour la détection et l’étude des insectes est plus que jamais nécessaire. En effet, ces leviers permettront de faciliter l’étude de ces organismes, d’augmenter les connaissances et ainsi de développer une conservation plus adéquate. Nous évoquerons deux approches en particulier : la détection avec des outils moléculaires et l’utilisation de modèles statistiques pour l’exploration de la distribution potentielle des espèces.Mais les connaissances sont également fondées sur la demande sociétale. Et les connaissances alimentent elles-mêmes les outils de protection et de conservation de la biodiversité. À l’échelle des invertébrés, des disparités existent, privilégiant les « grands papillons bleus » aux « petits diptères marrons ». De fait, l’enjeu le plus important pour déverrouiller la conservation des insectes réside dans l’humain et la perception qu’il a de cette biodiversité. À travers une approche de psychologie de la conservation, nous sonderons la perception du grand public sur les insectes. De même, avec une approche de recherche-action-participative, nous tenterons d’engager divers acteurs vers la conservation d’un groupe d’insectes ordinaires : les coléoptères coprophages. Notre volonté est de proposer des moyens pour sensibiliser, éduquer et engager la société dans cet enjeu majeur qu’est la conservation de l’entomofaune. / Looking closely at the legal tools and other levers for preserving biodiversity, it would seem that invertebrates, in particular insects, are in a minority, or absent. This observation is all the more paradoxical when we know that 2/3 of the biological diversity consists of insects. How does this diversity, essential for the functioning of the ecosystems, find itself in the dead angle of conservation?The first answer that is usually put forward is lack of technical tools to study these small and relatively elusive animals. Getting to know and use new technical methods for the detection and the study of insects is more than ever necessary. Indeed, these levers will facilitate the study of these animals, and will thus increase knowledge, which will lead to developing more adequate conservation strategies. We shall evoke two approaches in particular: detection with molecular tools and use of statistical models to explore the potential distribution of the species.But knowledge is also based on what society asks for. Public interest orients the tools of protection and preservation of biodiversity. Among invertebrates, disparities exist, favoring the “big blue butterflies” over the “small brown dipterans”. A simple coincidence? No. Actually, the decisive factor to unlock the preservation of insects rests in human beings and how they perceive this biodiversity. Using a conservation psychology approach, we will explore how the general public perceives insects. We will also draw on participatory action research to see how various conservation actors can be committed towards preserving a group of ordinary insects: coprophagous beetles. Our aim is to propose ways to raise awareness, educate and engage society to this major issue: preserving entomofauna.

Balancing increasing elephant numbers with biodiversity conservation in small reserves has become a concern for many protected area managers. Elephants are considered important agents of disturbance creating heterogeneity and thus contributing to the maintenance of biodiversity. However elephants also damage vegetation through their destructive feeding habits, and this has led to pressure to reduce elephant populations in many reserves. Quantitative data on the impact of elephants on invertebrates, the main component of biodiversity at the species level, are lacking. The aim of this project was to assess the effect that habitat alteration by elephants has on the diversity of selected ground-dwelling invertebrates (ants, centipedes, millipedes, spiders, scorpions and termites) through the provision of logs and dung as a potential refuge niche for these invertebrate communities, and to determine the effect of spatial (vegetation types) and temporal (season and age of dung) variation on the invertebrates using these refugia. Variation in impacts was considered important because savanna is not homogenous and the impact of the refugia is likely to be dynamic in terms of seasonal trends in invertebrate populations, and in terms of changes in the environmental conditions offered by the refugia. Elephant impact on vegetation, quantity of refugia (logs and dung) produced and invertebrate diversity associated with refugia were determined for 115 transects within Madikwe Game Reserve in the North Western Province, South Africa. Invertebrate abundance, species richness and diversity were always higher under refugia than in areas without refugia. Vegetation utilisation, frequency of refugia production and invertebrate diversity showed strong temporal variation (seasonal); elephant impact and production of logs were higher in winter than in summer because elephants are more likely to feed on woody vegetation in winter when grass nutrient levels are low. Invertebrate diversity under the logs was higher in summer than in winter, and this probably reflected the higher abundance and diversity of invertebrates that are usually associated with the warmer, wetter summer months. The effect of adding refugia to three vegetation types on invertebrate diversity was tested experimentally at Makalali Private Game Reserve in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Logs and elephant dung were set out in five plots each measuring 20m x 20m within Govender - iii mixed bushveld, riverine and mopane woodland. Significant differences were observed in invertebrate abundance, species richness and diversity between the refugia and control plots that lacked refugia and between the three vegetation types sampled. Similarity between invertebrate communities utilising the different refugia types and between the three different vegetation types were tested using the Jaccard similarity coefficient. The three vegetation types shared fewer than 50% of their species, as did the logs, dung and control sites. However the results obtained do illustrate a higher degree of similarity between the refugia substrates (logs and dung) than the control sites and between the more heterogeneous vegetation types (mixed bushveld and riverine) than the mopane veld. This indicated that invertebrate communities associated with refugia were not uniform, but were influenced by vegetation type. An experimental test of temporal changes in invertebrate community composition illustrated the importance of elephant dung as a microhabitat for different invertebrate groups over different ages of dung (three days, two, four, 12 and 32 weeks old). Colonisation of the dung, by dung beetles was immediate but as the microclimate of the dung changed with time, the new conditions were ideal for other invertebrate taxa. Over a period of eight months, the change of invertebrate communities utilising the dung included dung beetles, followed by millipedes and [mally ant and termite communities. The results of this study illustrated the importance of refugia (logs and dung) produced by elephants for ground-dwelling invertebrate species in the savanna environment. The extent of the influence of the refugia varied both spatially and temporally and this should be considered in future monitoring or in measuring impacts. While further research on a broader range of organisms and at larger scales is necessary, elephants do have a positive impact on at least some components of biodiversity, through the process of facilitation of refugia. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.