The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of middle school social studies teachers questioning patterns on learners outcomes. Using a strategy developed by Beck, McKeown, Sandora, Kucan, & Worthy (1996), Questioning the Author, participants were trained in the implementation of this effective questioning strategy in an effort to improve classroom questioning and students responses to text. Two volunteer social studies teachers from an inner city middle school in western Pennsylvania were the participants in the study. The investigator served as the primary observer using a case study format. The primary instrument used to gather data was observations. The investigator observed and audio taped each lesson. Once the lessons were audio taped, the observations were transcribed and categorized using an observation tool based on the work of Beck, McKeown, Sandora, Kucan, & Worthy (1996). Four social studies texts were used and each was taught by the participants during a separate 45-minute class period. Together the investigator and the participants pre selected these texts based on curriculum criteria. Once the chosen texts were taught to the students, the investigator trained the subjects in the implementation of Questioning the Author (Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L., & Kucan, L., 1997; Beck, McKeown, Sandora, Kucan, & Worthy, 1996) strategies. The investigator then observed the subjects teaching the same four texts. The data obtained from the audio tapes and observations were analyzed using tables and descriptive narratives. In addition, participants kept reflective teaching journals, which were also categorized and analyzed. Additional instruments used to gather data included the Survey: Teaching Questioning Survey and interviews with participants. The survey was distributed prior to the study and sought after information about the participants general knowledge of questioning strategies. Interviews were conducted before and during the study with information obtained woven into the analysis and conclusions. The study concluded that the intervention staff development strategy, Questioning the Author (Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Hamilton, R. L., & Kucan, L., 1997; Beck, McKeown, Sandora, Kucan, & Worthy, 1996) resulted in an increased ability of teachers to ask questions that prompted higher student engagement with text. Similarly, the increase in text engagement resulted in elevated levels of comprehension.

Observational studies of reading instruction for hearing students with and without a disability have provided valuable descriptive information on reading instruction; however, similar studies involving students who are deaf/hard of hearing have not been reported. Thus, an observational study of reading instruction, using the MS-CISSAR protocol, was conducted in general education classrooms, resource classrooms, and self-contained special education classrooms in grades 1-4 in public schools within the tri-state area of OH, PA, and WV. Participants included 24 students (with and without concomitant conditions and with varying levels of hearing loss) and 17 teachers of reading for these students. Results indicated that reading activities varied by reading curriculum grade level, grade level enrolled, instructional setting, and presence of concomitant disability.

Self-efficacy, the belief that one can complete a specific learning task effectively, is of vital importance for students studying Spanish as a foreign language. In prior research increased self-efficacy has been correlated with enhanced learner motivation, academic performance, and overall achievement. Theoretically, learners ability to self-assess their own strengths and limitations during the learning process may be linked to overall self-efficacy. However, this association has not been tested empirically. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a continuous self-assessment component on the self-efficacy of undergraduate students studying Spanish as a foreign language. 104 undergraduate students from two different universities participated in this experimental study. 62 participants were in a treatment group, and 42 participants were in the control group. All participants completed the Spanish as a Foreign Language Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (SFL-SEQ) during the second week of the semester (i.e., pre-test) and during the final week of the semester (i.e., post-test). Participants in the treatment group also completed weekly Self-Assessment Questionnaires throughout the semester. Results of an Analysis of Covariance, which tested whether inter-group differences in self-efficacy were different between the control and treatments group at post-test after controlling for participants pre-test self-efficacy scores (i.e., the covariate) were not statistically significant (F [1,86]=1.77, p=.19). However, results of a follow-up 2X2 Analysis of Variance, which tested whether intra-group self-efficacy increased from pre-test to post-test, were statistically significant (F [1,87]=12.40, p<.01). Pairwise t-tests for dependent measures showed that self-efficacy scores did increase significantly from pre-test to post-test for treatment group participants (t = -7.18 [df=53], p<.001), but self-efficacy scores did not significantly increase from pre-test to post-test for control group participants (t = -.90 [df=34], p=.38). Therefore, Spanish undergraduate students self-efficacy seemed to be heightened significantly more with continuous self-assessment than without it. In addition, Pearson correlations revealed that participants Self-Assessment Questionnaire scores were significantly positively correlated with their SFL-SEQ scores. That is, when students rated themselves as learning and knowing more during the course, their self-efficacy scores proportionately increased as well. A detailed interpretation of these results, as well as implications for foreign language education, is provided.

The purpose of this study was to describe the roles and responsibilities of 17 special education teachers and the challenges they encountered in the areas of planning, instructing, and monitoring of student progress of elementary students in 4 school districts in Western Pennsylvania. This study was conducted by collecting data through focus group discussions, written weekly logs, and personal interviews. Focus group questions regarding the teaching practices of special educators were guided by the review of the literature and the conceptual framework of this study, based in part on Dukes 1987 vision of teaching excellence in the areas of planning, instructing, and monitoring student progress. Findings revealed five challenges and impacts of the challenges they encountered in their daily work, together explaining the role dissonance experienced by many special education teachers in todays schools. Real life examples of how teachers cope with the challenges of their daily work were revealed through the stories they told in this study. The collective knowledge and experiences of these teachers stand as examples for others in their own practices.

A single case study design was employed to describe the nature of one exemplary second grade teachers differentiated reading instruction. The teacher participant was selected from a group of exemplary teachers nominated from one rural school district in southwestern Pennsylvania. Data collection consisted of classroom observations, teacher interviews, and classroom artifacts. An analysis of the data revealed that the participating teacher differentiated the following aspects of small group reading instruction: materials, time spent in small group meetings, lesson structure and focus, teacher talk, and post-reading assignments. Ongoing assessments were used as the basis for decision-making about how to differentiate each lesson. A microanalysis of teacher talk was conducted to provide insight regarding the nature of verbal scaffolding in the classroom. Teacher-student interactions were analyzed and coded at the level of utterance. The following categories were used to define the different types of talk used by the teacher to promote the independent use of strategies in reading: direct explanation, explicit modeling, invitations to participate, clarification, verification, and telling. This analysis revealed that the needs of the children created changes in the way the teacher interacted with group members.

This study explored issues surrounding the validity of Pennsylvanias Alternate System of Assessment (PASA) for students with visual impairments. The PASA is a performance-based assessment that assesses a sub-set of math and reading skills delineated by the States alternate standards. Data from 286 students with visual impairments who took the 2005 Level A PASA at grades 3/4 or 7/8 were analyzed. Descriptive and statistical analyses compared achievement on the PASA between three groups of students with visual impairments at different levels of functional vision as well as to a matched group of peers without visual impairments. The latter comparison investigated differential item functioning (DIF) on each individual test item using the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test. In addition, types of accommodations made for students with visual impairments to provide access to the assessment and potential factors contributing to test bias were documented. Overall, the study confirmed expected patterns of accommodation selection by functional vision level with layout/set-up accommodations being the most frequently used. It also revealed a set of test items flagged for DIF statistically that did not always coincide with the test items judgmental reviewers would expect to be problematic or different for students with visual impairments. Among the three functional levels and the students with visual impairments as a whole, 29 instances of DIF in which a test item may have been potentially harder were found. In addition, there were 12 instances where a test item may have potentially been easier. A qualitative logical analysis highlighted a variety of variables that interact with the decision-making process to pinpoint potential reasons for the presence of DIF. Under-accommodation, the frequency of lucky guesses, score change patterns, and experience level with content were all factors suspected of contributing to performance on different types of test items. Discussion of these variables as well as interesting patterns in accommodation selection or the absence of accommodation selection is included. Challenges of and recommendations for adapting the PASA for students with visual impairments are provided as well as general discussion regarding aspects of assessing this population of students.

This study investigated the extent to and ways in which attention to students mathematical thinking was evident in the written lesson plans or lesson planning process of ten pre-service secondary mathematics teachers at various points during their teacher education program: prior to and immediately after participation in a course (the Teaching Lab) that emphasized students mathematical thinking as a key element of planning, during teachers first semester of their field experience as they planned lessons in their actual practice of teaching, and near the end of the first semester of their field experience as they planned lessons on demand and for university assignments. With respect to learning from the Teaching Lab, the study shows that the teachers demonstrated significant growth on pre to post course measures in their ability to attend to students thinking when planning a lesson on demand and for a university assignment. Furthermore, teachers continued to be able to apply these ideas when planning on demand and for university assignments several months later. When investigating whether or not teachers would apply the ideas they had learned when planning in their own practice, the study suggests three findings. First, teachers attention to students thinking when planning lessons that used tasks with a high level of cognitive demand was not significantly different from their planning for a lesson on demand or the lesson plan they produced for the Teaching Lab assignment. Furthermore, teachers were more likely to attend to students thinking when planning a lesson that used a high-level task compared to a lesson that used a low-level task. Second, for some teachers, written lesson plans significantly under-represented their attention to students thinking in their planning process. Finally, the study suggests that support from the mentor teacher and/or university supervisor may be an important factor in determining whether or not the teacher applies their knowledge of attention to students thinking to their planning in practice.

The purpose of this study was to describe the instructional practices of two pre-service secondary mathematics teachers, Paige Morris and Keith Nichols, during their internship experiences. Specifically, the study aimed to examine the cognitive demands of the tasks as selected and enacted by the pre-service teachers, the mathematical representations used during the lesson, and the questions asked by each pre-service teacher. Additionally, the study aimed to describe the ways in which the contextual settings, particularly the curriculum and mentor, appeared to influence the instructional practices of the pre-service teachers as they planned for and enacted mathematics lessons in their field placements. The analysis of the data indicated that the instructional practices of the pre-service teachers were quite different. Keith planned for and enacted more high-level tasks than did Paige. While both Paige and Keith provided their respective students with opportunities to consider multiple representations of a mathematical idea, the use of the representations differed. Paige focused on procedural aspects of making connections between representations, whereas Keith used the representations as a way for the students to build meaning of the mathematical concepts. Additionally, Keith asked more questions that provided the students with opportunities to think and reason about the mathematics as well as to make meaningful connections between representations. An analysis of the contextual settings in which Paige and Keith worked point to key differences in the opportunities that Paige and Keith had during their field experience to learn about student-centered instructional practices. Two specific areas that were targeted in this study were the curriculum and the mentor. A review of the data indicated that the curriculum used in field experience and the mentoring that Paige and Keith received from their mentor teachers and university supervisors appeared to affect aspects of their practice. That is, Keith was greatly influenced by his use of a reform-oriented curriculum, whereas Paige did not have access to such a curriculum. Additionally, Keiths mentors consistently used specific instances form the lesson as a means to identify key areas for Keith to focus on improving. In contrast, Paige typically received feedback that was broad and general.

The study described in this document made use of quantitative and qualitative methodology to examine factors contributing to mathematical ability in young deaf children. Specifically, this study examined the relationship between relative level of mathematical ability and an understanding of basic concepts (i.e., color, letters, numbers/counting, sizes, comparisons, shapes, direction/position, self-social awareness, texture/material, quantity, time/sequence); and mediation techniques used by families (i.e., Feurstein's dimensions of Intentionality/Reciprocity, Transcendence, and Meaning). Data were collected using: standardized tests (i.e., the Test of Early Mathematics Ability-3 and the Bracken Basic Concept Scale-Revised); structured early mathematics activities; and naturalistic observation. Based on scores from the Test of Early Mathematics Ability-3, sub-groups of participants who demonstrated relatively high and low levels of mathematical ability were selected to participate in a second level of the study. During this level, data were collected regarding the understanding of basic concepts by participants and mediation techniques used by the families, using a multiple case-study design. Findings indicated that the following characteristics were associated with relatively high mathematical ability in young deaf children: early identification of hearing loss; at least one deaf parent; and fluent exposure to sign language in the home. Additionally children with relatively high mathematical ability were found to have a better understanding of basic concepts and to come from homes in which higher quality mediation techniques were used. Homes of "more successful" children were language-rich and learning opportunities were readily available. Children with relatively low mathematical ability had less access to language within the home environment, and high-quality learning opportunities were limited.

A mixed methods study design was employed to determine what differences in knowledge of reading instruction and perceived preparedness to teach reading exist between two groups of teacher candidates enrolled in different teacher preparation programs offered at the University of Pittsburgh. Additionally, this study investigated which components of such programs - coursework, field experience, reflection, or collaboration - teacher candidates perceived as preparing them to teach reading. Data regarding teacher candidates' perceived preparedness to teach reading were collected once upon completion of their preparation program and again after obtaining full-time teaching experience in order to record changes over time. Data collection consisted of the Knowledge Inventory, Survey of Perceptions, Follow-up Survey of Perceptions and telephone interviews. Background information regarding teacher candidates was also collected. It was hypothesized that teacher candidates from the Masters of Arts in Teaching program would obtain higher scores on the Knowledge Inventory and perceive themselves as more prepared to teach reading than those enrolled in the Professional Year program, which would be attributable to their extended amount of time spent in the field. An analysis of the data revealed that few significant differences existed between teacher candidates from the two programs. Based on Knowledge Inventory scores, teacher candidates had a rudimentary knowledge of reading instruction. Undergraduate GPA, PRAXIS scores, age and gender were not factors in knowledge of reading instruction. There were no differences in knowledge of reading between teacher candidates from the two programs based on amount of time spent in the field or grade-level placement. Teacher candidates from both programs perceived themselves as being prepared to teach reading; however, their perceived level of preparedness was somewhat lower after gaining teaching experience than it was immediately upon completing their respective program. Teacher candidates from both programs perceived their coursework and field experience to be the most valuable components of their program. Despite this overall sense of readiness to teach reading, teacher candidates had specific areas of concern in which they would benefit from further instruction, including: spelling and writing instruction; differentiating instruction based on assessment results; and differentiating instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners.