Electron backscatter diffraction is a method that is well described and commonly used for orientation image mapping, including grain size estimation. The use of this method for measuring elastic deformation and rotations caused by plastic deformations is not so well decribed. This diploma thesis first describes the typical EBSD system. The information regarding the standard coordinate systems, grain orientation notation and system calibration is then used to create an open-source software for mapping elastic deformations and rotations inside a single grain or a monocrystal. This software uses data acquired during standard EBSD mapping on a commercial system.

Environmental issues and regulations are pushing the automotive industry to produce more efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles. To address these issues, reducing the weight of the vehicles by use of aluminum alloys is increasing. AA6022-T43 is a new sheet aluminum alloy designed specifically for automobile enclosure panels. Because this alloy is new, little data exists on its mechanical properties in the open literature. AA6022-T43 is received by the automotive industry in 1-mm thick sheet stock and subsequently stamped into the desired component. The design and manufacturing processes of the component are guided by the materials mechanical behavior. This study characterizes the mechanical and microstructural properties of uniaxially strained AA6022-T43.

<p>Recrystallisation annealing, a repeated heat treatment between different stages of cold rolling of martensitic chromium steel strip, is successful when neither high rolling forces nor wear of the working rolls occur during the subsequent cold rolling. Mechanical properties as tensile strength, yield, elongation or hardness have been, by tradition, the criteria that described the quality of the annealing process. In recent years, the development of the measurement equipment in the rolling mills and of the instruments for material investigations has accentuated more and more the role played by the microstructural properties in the evaluation of the heat treatment. Two microstructural characteristics of the degree of annealing are, firstly and most important, the recrystallisation degree, and, secondly, the secondary carbide density.</p><p>The sample manufacturing and heat treatment, modelling and microstructure investigations by light optical- (LOM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) described in this article were carried out at Sandvik Materials Technology’s R&D Department and Bell Furnace Line in Sandviken, Sweden, while microstructure investigations and evaluation by scanning electron microscopy with field emission gun (FEG-SEM) and electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) were done at the Corrosion and Metals Research Institute (KIMAB) in Stockholm, Sweden.</p><p>The first part of this work shows that, in contrast to the traditional methods LOM and SEM, that use chemical etching for the preparation of the samples, EBSD can successfully characterise recrystallised structures in annealed martensitic chromium steels. Unlike conventional microscopy with LOM and SEM, EBSD is able to reveal the grain geometry, as well as to separate and identify the different phases in this kind of steels (ferrite, M23-, M6-carbides). Important parameters such as grain size, particle size and recrystallised fraction can be measured with high accuracy. This information can be used to understand, evaluate, control and even predict the recrystallisation annealing of martensitic chromium steel.</p><p>The second part of this work presents how the results from microstructure description by EBSD can be directly used in relatively simple empirical models for determination of recrystallisation degree as function of the annealing parameters and the deformation history. EBSD was applied to evaluate the degree of recrystallisation in a series of annealing tests, with the purpose to model recrystallisation temperature in two types of martensitic chromium steel strip, a traditional one and one alloyed with molybdenum, cold rolled with different amounts of reduction and annealed with different temperatures, soaking times and heating rates. The empirical quadratic models were built with Umetrics’ software for experimental design, MODDEÒ 8.0 and they defined the recrystallisation degree (limits for LAGB and HAGB were set to 1.5° and 7.5° for the first grade and 2.5° and 10° for second one) and the secondary carbides density as functions of annealing temperature, soaking time and cold reduction (the factor heating rate was removed as nonsignificant). To be observed that these empirical models were fit much better for the recrystallisation degree than for the secondary carbides density.</p><p>The modelling work described above, together with the implementation of online physical temperature models in the bell annealers may lead to an increased productivity in the production plant by shortening the annealing cycle and minimising scrap and thus to an economical gain of ca 1,5 MSEK per year at Sandvik Materials Technology.</p><p> </p>

Scatter observed in the fatigue test results of a cast nickel-based superalloy may arise from its coarse grain microstructure. With only a few grains through the sample cross-section, it has been postulated that the inherent anisotropy of individual grains results in the different surface strain distributions during testing. Crystal plasticity finite element modelling (CPFEM) was used to model the deformation of a fat test piece containing a few grains in the cross-section. The mesh was generated using EBSD maps from the surfaces of samples that were subjected to monotonic and cyclic loading at two different temperatures. Digital image correlation (DIC) was used to study the local strain the same sur- faces. Heterogeneous strain distribution, that could be responsible for scatter in the fatigue test results, was observed both in the model and experimentally. However, they were quantitatively different. These differences are attributed to the simplistic microstructural representation in the model and its inability to accurately represent intergranular deformation. The inherent anisotropy within grains resulted in different surface strain distributions during cyclic loading and it was observed that the fatigue life of the test specimens could be correlated to the maximum plastic strain in the sample at the end of the first cycle. As the CPFE model captured the maximum strain measured experimentally, the maximum strain at the end of the first cycle was determined as a fatigue indicator parameter (FIP) for the number of cycles to failure. Randomly generated synthetic microstructures were then loaded in tension and it was observed that when using local strain as a FIP, the scatter in orientations of individual grains resulted in scatter in the expected fatigue life.

Multilayered aluminium alloy composites were produced by accumulative roll bonding (ARB) to very high strain to generate sheet materials consisting of either 32 or 64 alternating layers of Al and Al-0.3w.%Sc alloy. Based on the starting heat treatment condition of the Al(Sc) alloy and the roll bonding temperature, several different Al/Al(Sc) combinations were produced: (i) SSSS-ARB (Al(Sc) in the supersaturated condition; Tdef = 200 ???C; 32 layers); (ii) Aged-ARB (Al(Sc) in the artificially aged condition; Tdef = 200 ???C; 32 layers), and (iii) SSSS-ARB-HT (Al(Sc) in the SSSS condition; Tdef = 350 ???C; 64 layers). Regardless of the roll bonding conditions, Al(Sc) in the form of a dispersion of ultrafine Al3Sc particles strongly impedes structural changes during thermomechanical processing whereas Al readily undergoes extensive dynamic and static restoration. The major aim of the thesis is to understand the effect of initial microstructure and processing conditions on microstructural development in these multilayered Al/Al(Sc) composites. The microstructures were investigated mainly by backscatter electron (BSE) and ion channeling contrast (ICC) imaging in the DualBeam Platform and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) whereas the crystallographic nature of the microstructures were investigated by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and the various diffraction techniques available in the TEM. The mechanical properties of the materials were investigated by hardness and tensile testing. The deformation microstructure and texture of these two alloy combinations were strongly influenced by both the initial heat treatment condition of the Al(Sc) alloy whereby large-scale shear bands are generated during rolling when a dispersion of fine Al3Sc particles is present in the Al(Sc) layers. The deformation mechanism of both SSSS-ARB and Aged-ARB was strongly controlled by the relative hardening behaviour of adjacent layers. In Aged-ARB, a higher magnitude of in-plane shear stress, exceeding the flow stress of Al(Sc), was operative at the interfaces between layers; this was shown to cause the shear banding in this material. All materials were annealed for up to 6h at 350 ??C. This extended annealing generated alternating layers of coarse grains (Al layers) and a recovered substructure (Al(Sc) layers) with the substantial waviness of the layers in both Aged-ARB and SSSS-ARB-HT being inherited from the as-deformed material. While the Al(Sc) layers remain unrecrystallized in all materials due to particle pinning effects, the Al layers underwent continuous and discontinuous recrystallization after low and high temperature roll bonding, respectively. Shear banding in Aged-ARB also resulted in a reduction in intensity of the rolling texture components and had a randomizing effect on the recrystallization texture of the Al layers. The Al/A(Sc) multilayered composites were found to conform to the classic inverse strength/ductility relationship and no significant improvement in ductility (for a given strength) was evident. The barriers to achieving an excellent combination of ductility and strength (i.e. toughness) in these materials were identified to be delamination of the layers, which can be largely reduced (or eliminated) by careful control of starting materials (heat treatment condition and thickness) as well as the processing parameters during ARB.

The main objective of this thesis is to investigate and quantify the influence of parent-twin and twin-twin interactions on the mechanical response of hexagonal close-packed metals. To study parent-twin interactions, a mean-field continuum mechanics approach has been developed based on a new twinning topology in which twins are embedded in twinned grains. A first model generalizing the Tanaka-Mori scheme to heterogeneous elastic media is applied to first and second generation twinning in magnesium. In the case of first generation twinning, the model is capable of reproducing the trends in the development of backstresses within the twin domain as observed experimentally. Applying the methodology to the case of second-generation twinning allows the identification, in exact agreement with experimental observations, of the most likely second-generation twin variants to grow in a primary twin domain. Because the elastic behavior assumption causes internal stress level magnitudes to be excessively high, the first model is extended to the case of elasto-plasticity. Using a self-consistent approximation, the model, referred to as the double inclusion elasto-plastic self-consistent (DI-EPSC) scheme, is applied to Mg alloy polycrystals. The comparison of results obtained from the DI-EPSC and EPSC schemes reveals that deformation system activities and plastic strain distributions within twins drastically depend on the interaction with parent domains. The influence of twin-twin interactions on nucleation and growth of twins is being statistically studied from zirconium and magnesium electron back-scattered diffraction scans. A new twin recognition software relying on graph theory analysis has been developed to extract all microstructural and crystallographical data. It is capable of identifying all twinning modes and all twin-twin interaction types occurring in hexagonal close-packed materials. The first results obtained from high purity Zr electron back-scattered diffraction maps reveal that twin-twin interactions hinder subsequent twin nucleation. They also show that mechanisms involved in twin growth may differ significantly for each twinning mode. A second study performed on AZ31 Mg presents statistics about low Schmid factor {10-12} tensile twins and about {10-12}-{10-12} sequential double twins coupled with a simplified version of the Tanaka-Mori scheme generalized to heterogeneous elasticity with plastic incompatibilities.

The titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V has been favoured by the aerospace industry for the past several decades due to its good combination of specific mechanical properties, alongside corrosion and fatigue resistance. Titanium alloys are naturally suited to the near net shape processing technique of Additive Manufacture (AM) due to both the inherent high cost of the raw materials, and the difficulties associated with machining the alloys. Unfortunately, the combination of Ti-6Al-4V with AM has been found to lead to undesirable microstructures with respect to large columnar prior β grains being found to grow potentially across the entire height of builds. This microstructure has been shown to lead to property anisotropy and poor fatigue resistance. However, it has recently been found that the integration of an additional process step that lightly deforms the deposited material between added layers leads to the refinement of this undesirable microstructure. This work characterises the effect that two different deformation processing techniques have on two different additive manufacturing processes; the effect of peening on a laser-powder AM technique, and the effect of rolling on an electric arc-wire AM technique. In both cases far more randomly textured prior β grains were found with an average grain size of > 100 µm rather than mm long columnar grains with a common growth direction formed in the non-deformed builds. The refined β microstructure was found to lead to a reduction in texture of the room temperature alpha phase. The low stains involved (>10%) indicated that the refined grain structures did not form by traditional recrystallisation mechanisms. In-situ EBSD measurements at temperatures spanning the alpha → β phase transformation have been used to observe the growth of new β orientations from crystallographic twins in the deformed microstructure that may explain the origin of the refined grains. New β orientations were observed to grow from twinned alpha colonies and from between alpha laths, where the new β is found to grow sharing a twinning relationship with the residual β. Simulation of both of the individual processing steps under laboratory conditions has been found to successfully replicate the refinement observed in process. Orientation analysis suggests that twinning of the residual β could lead to the texture observed in the refined grains. It is therefore suggested that the refined grains are formed from β twinned regions in the deformed material growing under the alpha → β phase transformation, as the material is heated by the next added layer during AM.

Martensitic transformation is very important in austenitic stainless steels where the transformation induced plasticity phenomenon provides a combination of good mechanical properties, such as formability and strength. However, the difficulty of predicting the material behaviour is one of the major drawbacks of these steels. In order to model this behaviour it is of great importance to be able to characterize the morphology, crystallography and the amount of different types of martensite. The morphology and crystallography of thermal and deformation induced lath martensite in stainless steels were re-examined by means of optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique. The experiments were performed on AISI301, 304 and 204Cu austenitic stainless steels. Plastic deformation was carried out by means of uniaxial tensile tests at the strain rate of  to produce strain induced α’-martensite at a temperature ranging from 0 to 60ºC. An in-situ measurement of the martensite content was performed during the tensile testing using a Ferritescope to provide the necessary experimental values for modelling. Optical microscopy revealed the morphology of the strain induced α’-martensite as sets of thin parallel needles that go through the parent austenite grain and stop at the grain or annealing twin boundaries. Large amount of α’-martensite could be seen at the intersection of shear bands. However, considerable amount of α’-martensite was also observed when only one set of bands is activated. EBSD was successfully used to analyze the morphology and crystallography of martensite. The α’-martensite maintained the Kurdjumov-Sachs (K-S) orientation relationship with the austenite phase. Although all six possible variants did not appear within a single packet, one or two variants were often favoured out of six related to the specific {111} plane. The misorientations between the neighbouring variants were mainly &lt;111&gt; 60º or &lt;110&gt; 49.5º.

Recrystallisation annealing, a repeated heat treatment between different stages of cold rolling of martensitic chromium steel strip, is successful when neither high rolling forces nor wear of the working rolls occur during the subsequent cold rolling. Mechanical properties as tensile strength, yield, elongation or hardness have been, by tradition, the criteria that described the quality of the annealing process. In recent years, the development of the measurement equipment in the rolling mills and of the instruments for material investigations has accentuated more and more the role played by the microstructural properties in the evaluation of the heat treatment. Two microstructural characteristics of the degree of annealing are, firstly and most important, the recrystallisation degree, and, secondly, the secondary carbide density. The sample manufacturing and heat treatment, modelling and microstructure investigations by light optical- (LOM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) described in this article were carried out at Sandvik Materials Technology’s R&amp;D Department and Bell Furnace Line in Sandviken, Sweden, while microstructure investigations and evaluation by scanning electron microscopy with field emission gun (FEG-SEM) and electron back scatter diffraction (EBSD) were done at the Corrosion and Metals Research Institute (KIMAB) in Stockholm, Sweden. The first part of this work shows that, in contrast to the traditional methods LOM and SEM, that use chemical etching for the preparation of the samples, EBSD can successfully characterise recrystallised structures in annealed martensitic chromium steels. Unlike conventional microscopy with LOM and SEM, EBSD is able to reveal the grain geometry, as well as to separate and identify the different phases in this kind of steels (ferrite, M23-, M6-carbides). Important parameters such as grain size, particle size and recrystallised fraction can be measured with high accuracy. This information can be used to understand, evaluate, control and even predict the recrystallisation annealing of martensitic chromium steel. The second part of this work presents how the results from microstructure description by EBSD can be directly used in relatively simple empirical models for determination of recrystallisation degree as function of the annealing parameters and the deformation history. EBSD was applied to evaluate the degree of recrystallisation in a series of annealing tests, with the purpose to model recrystallisation temperature in two types of martensitic chromium steel strip, a traditional one and one alloyed with molybdenum, cold rolled with different amounts of reduction and annealed with different temperatures, soaking times and heating rates. The empirical quadratic models were built with Umetrics’ software for experimental design, MODDEÒ 8.0 and they defined the recrystallisation degree (limits for LAGB and HAGB were set to 1.5° and 7.5° for the first grade and 2.5° and 10° for second one) and the secondary carbides density as functions of annealing temperature, soaking time and cold reduction (the factor heating rate was removed as nonsignificant). To be observed that these empirical models were fit much better for the recrystallisation degree than for the secondary carbides density. The modelling work described above, together with the implementation of online physical temperature models in the bell annealers may lead to an increased productivity in the production plant by shortening the annealing cycle and minimising scrap and thus to an economical gain of ca 1,5 MSEK per year at Sandvik Materials Technology.

The origin of texture components associated with rare-earth (RE) element additions in wrought magnesium (Mg) alloys is a long-standing problem in magnesium technology. The objective of this research is to identify the mechanisms accountable for rare-earth texture during dynamic recrystallization (DRX). Towards this end, we designed binary Mg-Cerium and Mg-Gadolinium alloys along with complex alloy compositions containing zinc, yttrium and Mischmetal. Binary alloys along with pure Mg were designed to individually investigate their effects on texture evolutions, while complex compositions are designed to develop randomized texture, and be used in automotive and aerospace applications. We selected indirect extrusion to thermomechanically process our materials. Different extrusion ratios and speeds were designed to produce partially and fully recrystallized microstructures, allowing us to analyze DRX from its early stages to completion. X-ray diffraction, electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to conduct microstructure and texture analyses Our analyses revealed that rare-earth elements in zinc-containing magnesium alloys promote discontinuous dynamic recrystallization at the grain boundaries. During nucleation, the effect of rare earth elements on orientation selection was explained by the concomitant actions of multiple Taylor axes in the same grain. Isotropic grain growth was observed due to rare earth elements segregating to grain boundaries, which lead to texture randomization. The nucleation in binary Mg-RE alloys took place by continuous formation of necklace structures. Stochastic relaxation of basal and non-basal dislocations into lowangle grain boundaries produced chains of embryos with nearly random orientations. Schmid factor analysis showed a lower net activation of dislocations in RE textured grains compared to ones on the other side of the stereographic triangle. Lower dislocation densities within RE grains favored their growth by setting the boundary migration direction toward grains with higher dislocation density, thereby decreasing the system energy. We investigated the influence of RE elements on extension twinning induced hardening. RE addition enhanced tensile twinning induced hardening significantly. EBSD analysis illustrated that tensile twins cross low angle grain boundaries in Mg-RE alloys, which produced large twins and facilitated transmutation of basal to prismatic dislocations. Higher activity of pyramidal II dislocations in Mg-RE alloys resulted in higher twinning induced hardening.