The second generation bioenergy crops Miscanthus x giganteus and short rotation coppice (SRC) willow are the two main bioenergy crops in the UK and have become an integral part of legislation to provide an alternative to fossil fuels and to reduce national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To reach emission targets, it is estimated that approximately 350,000 ha of land could be made available for bioenergy crops by 2020. Despite the promise of these crops, there have been very few field-studies regarding soil GHG (CO2, CH4 and N2O) emissions and many of the published studies are life cycle analyses or modelled fluxes from soils using default values from the IPCC. The first aim of this research was to quantify the in situ soil GHG budget and to establish the drivers of these GHG fluxes for Miscanthus and SRC willow. The second aim of this research was to provide a more in-depth understanding of C cycling under Miscanthus i.e. litter and roots through two field experiments. Overall, the results from this work confirm minimal emissions of CH4 and N2O from soil under Miscanthus and SRC willow. CO2 flux was found to be the major efflux from soils and it was found in Miscanthus, that the majority of this flux was derived from below ground respiration. Litter played an important part in providing nutrients to the soil, which is vital in systems that are not fertilised. Litter also contributed to SOM accumulation on the soil surface and may promote long-term C sequestration. The results from this work combined with other literature would suggest that these second generation crops offer advantages to first generation crops, but more field-based studies are required to say if they can offer the large-scale GHG savings needed to be a viable alternative to fossil fuels.

<p> Dwindling freshwater resources are one of the largest challenges facing countries worldwide. For regional and local governments the task of managing fresh water resources falls the hardest. Reduced water quantity directly impacts water quality and thus preventing further depletion of freshwater levels is necessary for meeting existing and forth coming water quality regulations. Thus, finding effective ways to better understand water use at the local or regional level and better ways of communicating pressing water management issues with water users is imperative to the longevity of freshwater resources. Environmental communication campaigns are one way of reaching water users. Understanding water users personal relationship with water resources and nature in general can inform environmental campaigns in multiple ways. </p><p> This research provides insight into the ways in which environmental campaigns can be framed to effectively reach the target audience. Two methods of assessing stakeholder perceptions of water resources are also explored. First, systems thinking is used to compare the mental models of water managers and members of the development sector in order to find areas of common interest and importance regarding the management of freshwater resources in the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene Corridor of northeast Washington and northern Idaho. Second, a survey is used to evaluate characteristics of water use for residents in Spokane County, Washington. </p><p> This dissertation is centered on three primary research questions: (1) How are environmental communication campaigns framed?; (2) How do stakeholder groups who may appear to have very different values for a shared resource perceive a shared that resource?; (3) How do people's perceptions of nature, environmental issues, and their ability to impact those issues influence the way that they use water? Results of this research show that there are key areas of shared interest between water managers and developers suggesting that long-term water management goals do not have to conflict with the goals of local development. This research also suggests that residents who are willing to perform behaviors to reduce their water use are not necessarily doing so, pointing toward further research questions to bridge the gap between willingness and action.</p>

Η παρούσα έκθεση περιγράφει την Οικολογική Διαχείριση της Περιοχής της Λίμνης Καϊάφα, που ανήκει στο δίκτυο ΦΥΣΗ 2000. Η περιοχή έχει σπουδαία Οικοσυστήματα, με παραλιακή αμμόφιλη βλάστηση, παράκτια δάση πεύκης και λιμνοθαλάσσια βλάστηση. Υπάρχουν σημαντικοί τύποι οικοτόπων και παράλληλα έντονη ανθρώπινη επίδραση, τόσο λόγω των ιαματικών λουτρών όσο και λόγω της αναψυχής, στις εκτεταμένες αμμώδεις παραλίες. Ωστόσο, σημαντικό μέρος της περιοχής έχει καταστραφεί από τις τελευταίες πυρκαγιές. Ως εκ τούτου, παρατίθενται γενικά στοιχεία περιγραφής των υγροτόπων και του δικτύου ΦΥΣΗ (ΝΑΤURA) 2000, πλήρης περιγραφή του συγκεκριμένου οικοσυστήματος, αξιολόγηση των παραμέτρων, ανάλυση των επιδράσεων που δέχεται η περιοχή και προτάσεις διαχείρισης μέσω ενός προγράμματος παρακολούθησης. Στο τέλος της εργασίας παρατίθεται και ένα ένθετο φωτογραφιών της περιοχής. / The present diploma thesis, studies the Environmental Management of the Kaiafa Lake, located on West Peloponnese, Greece, which is included and protected by the Natura 2000 network. The specific area incorporates large Ecosystems with coastal vegetation, coastal pine forests and lagoon vegetation. The habitat, which is of significant importance, is strongly influenced by human interference, due to the sanative tourism and the extensive recreational works among the wide sandy beaches. Furthermore, a significant part of the area has been devastated by fire, during the past summer. This work provides a general description of Wetlands and Natura 2000 network of sites, a full description of the ecosystems, the effects of the reception area and an evaluation of proposals and management parameters as well, via a monitoring program.

<p>Stream restoration is being conducted throughout the world at unprecedented rates to address stream channel degradation and water quality concerns. Natural Channel Design (NCD) is a common method used for restoration and has received governmental endorsement; however, the effects of NCD on channel stability and ecosystem functioning are poorly studied. We examined the effects of a reach-scale NCD project on channel stability, riparian vegetation, and water quality along the Cacapon River, West Virginia using a before-after-control-impact design and determined that restoration increased the abundance and diversity of woody vegetation, but had minimal effects on streambank stability and water quality. Increased erosion rates in some portions of the restored reach were attributed to differences in pre-restoration stability, vegetation removal, and soil composition among sub-reaches. No differences in in-stream concentrations of total phosphorus, nitrates, ammonia, or total suspended solids were detected following restoration; however, in-stream turbidity was drastically increased during construction. This study is a clear example of the value of monitoring streambank migration, vegetation communities, and soils to evaluate the effects of stream restoration and to provide insight on potential reasons for treatment failure. Ideally, pre-restoration monitoring should be used to inform project design by determining restoration potential of areas selected for restoration. </p><p> As a surrogate for process monitoring, we created a maximum entropy model of streambank erosion potential (SEP) in a Geographic Information System (GIS) framework to prioritize sites for management and to determine which variables in the watershed are associated with excessive rates of streambank erosion. Model development included measuring erosion rates throughout a central Appalachian watershed, application of a quantitative approach to locate target areas for management termed Target Eroding Areas (TEAs), and collection of environmental data throughout the study extent using high resolution, remotely sensed data. A likelihood distribution of TEAs from occurrence records and associated environmental variables over our study extent was constructed using the program Maxent. All model validation procedures indicated that the model was an excellent predictor of TEAs, and that the major environmental variables controlling these processes were streambank slope, soil characteristics, shear stress, underlying geology, and riparian vegetation. A classification scheme with low, moderate, and high levels of erosion potential derived from logistic model output was able to differentiate sites with low erosion potential from sites with moderate and high erosion potential. This type of modeling framework can be used in any watershed to address uncertainty in stream restoration planning and practice. </p><p> To address the need for accurate, high resolution estimation of streambank erosion, we also explored the role of laser scanning for estimating streambank migration and volumetric sediment loss. This was accomplished by comparing estimates of streambank migration and volumetric sediment loss derived from repeated erosion pin, streambank profile, and combined airborne and terrestrial light detection and ranging (LiDAR) surveys. Results indicated that LiDAR derived estimates were larger and highly variable compared to estimates derived from erosion pin and streambank profile surveys, which more accurately represented change along the study reach. Inflated LiDAR estimates were most likely the result of combining high resolution terrestrial LiDAR with relatively low resolution airborne LiDAR that could not effectively capture topographic features such as undercut banks. Although cost-prohibitive in some cases, repeated terrestrial LiDAR scans would likely circumvent these issues with higher point densities and better scan angles facilitating more accurate representation of streambank geometry, ultimately providing more accurate estimates of channel change. </p>

<p>To better understand the value of those who engage in environmental stewardship of natural areas, we studied volunteer steward's motivation to participate, their sustainable behaviors and attitudes toward stewardship-related constructs. Specifically, we designed and conducted a survey of volunteers who work as stewards in urban natural areas in Portland, Oregon. We hypothesize that as volunteer frequency increases: participants will be more motivated to participate for environmental reasons, volunteers will be more likely to feel a strong connection to the stewardship site, participants will be more likely to engage in public pro-environmental behaviors, and their level of environmental literacy will increase. Participants were sampled using a face-to-face survey methodology over the course of late winter and spring of 2012 during 18 different Portland Parks and Recreation sponsored stewardship events. We examined the motivations, attitudes and behaviors of the volunteers, and devised appropriate management implications for those organizing volunteer efforts. We equated a three-tiered typology of environmental literacy, based upon the frequency of volunteer participation, and analyzed our survey data using a principal component analysis, generalized linear models, and a qualitative coding analysis. The most frequent participants showed a higher likelihood of participation in public environmental behaviors, whereas participants at all frequency levels were also likely to participate in private environmental behaviors, such as removing invasive plants in one's yard. Volunteers across all frequencies of participation were motivated to engage in stewardship events by a desire to help the environment. By understanding volunteers' motivations and linked behaviors, park managers may gain insights about the recruitment, retention, and messaging of volunteers upon whom they may depend to achieve restoration goals. We recommend considering volunteers' motivations and benefits derived from participation in messaging to recruit and retain volunteers. Additionally, park managers should take advantage of educational opportunities linked to stewardship events, such as training programs and chances for volunteer mentorship.</p>

<p> Environmental activists are questioning the management strategies of the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish (a species complex of <i>Pterois volitans </i> and <i>P. miles</i>) in the western North Atlantic, due to the species' rapidly expanding invasion and steadily growing population. The invasive lionfish species ecological effects are of great concern, as impacts on marine and terrestrial ecosystems trigger population and biodiversity declines. Awareness and research supporting the need for better managerial techniques and response strategies are surfacing among academic groups, forcing critical thought on the best methods of containment and population management.</p><p> In response to the lack of information on the marketability of the lionfish species, I propose a thesis that focuses on the creation of a privately funded non-governmental organization (NGO) that will offer a more promising solution for the control of lionfish through the application of effective marketing and educational outreach strategies. An NGO design and program provides more options and greater flexibility than the federal response to date, which as previously mentioned has not been efficient in the management of the lionfish invasion, as it is incredibly difficult for federal agencies to conduct the public promotion and supply-chain building necessary to properly found this operation. The NGO will work to initiate interest in the lionfish through public education and cooperation and incentivize its capture and consumption, by appealing to the supply and demand ends of the culinary market. The overarching goal is to demonstrate how an NGO can successfully alleviate environmental impacts and increase sustainability through the use of market-based initiatives and inter-party cooperation.</p>

This thesis undertakes a review of the Remedial Action Plans (RAPs) for the St. Lawrence River Area of Concern (AOC). As directed by Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, RAPs are to take a systematic and comprehensive ecosystem approach to restoration, and ensure that the public is consulted about restoration activities. Through triangulation of three different research methods: twelve semi-structured interviews, observational research, and document analysis, this research explores how these two principles were incorporated into the St. Lawrence River AOC. This research draws from environmental management and governance literature in order to describe the implementation and decision-making frameworks of the RAP program. In theory an ecosystem approach is to be holistic and comprehensive in scope and application. In terms of the St. Lawrence River AOC, the holistic nature of the restoration process was hindered by the jurisdictional complexity of the region; Not only was there two federal governments, Canada and the United States, but the province of Ontario, state of New York, and the Mohawks of Akwesasne Nation. These jurisdictional divisions led to the eventual decision to separate the AOC into two RAPs at Massena, NY and Cornwall, ON. This division led to a divergence in impairment indicator identification and resultant restoration practices, timelines for RAP progress reports, availability of financial resources, and collective organization of restoration duties. The goal of each RAP is to eventually delist as an AOC. Through a review of the collective organization of the Cornwall RAP, it is best described as participatory and inclusive in terms of governance. There was representation and membership from government, industry, First Nations, and the public making the Cornwall RAP an example of solidarity in action. Because there has been a unification of visions through the RAP process, which is to have a clean and health St. Lawrence River, momentum has been generated to expand the ideals of the RAP to a broader St. Lawrence River collective. Lessons learned from this restoration process are constructive for cross-jurisdictional, multi-media restoration projects and serve to inform approaches to ecosystem restoration, planning, and management, especially that of the St. Lawrence River. / Thesis (Master, Environmental Studies) -- Queen's University, 2010-09-30 15:39:18.132

Geohelminthiasis is a serious problem in city slums and despite being easily treatable in the short term, its elimination enjoys a low priority by parents, teachers and public health authorities. This is partly due to the greater emphasis given to the AIDS and TB programmes. This study of the prevalence, intensity, and reinfection rates of single and multiple geohelminth (Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura and Necator americanus) infections in young children living in slums (informal settlements) in the Durban Unicity is a first for an African city and one of few similar studies anywhere in the world. The geohelminth status was assessed by means of a baseline survey of ten different slums, followed by two further surveys, one after 4Y:z - 6 months and another after 12 months. Infections were measured by microscopic examination of faeces before and after chemotherapy, and risk factors within and between slums were identified by means of a quantifiable questionnaire. The study showed that: 1. The slums have a high endemicity and transmission rate of geohelminth infections. 2. The sub-tropical climate and environment ensured a high survival rate of infective stages. 3. A. lumbricoides had a high prevalence and intensity, followed by T. trichiura with a moderately high prevalence and light intensity. A small proportion of children had intensities of these helminths an order of magnitude higher than previously recorded from rural areas of South Africa. N americanus had a very low prevalence and a very light intensity. 4. Egg output from follow-up 1 to follow-up 2 increased 4.6 fold for A. lumbricoides and 9.4 fold for T. trichiura. 5. Albendazole proved to be a very effective drug against A. lumbricoides and N americanus but not as effective against T. trichiura. 6. The infection and reinfection rates of A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura proved to be influenced by different risk factors. 7. The most important risk factors included topographical position of the slum, quality of the dwelling, number of inhabitants, geophagy and source of fruit and vegetables. II Whereas the ideal solution to the geohelminth problem in the slums would be to upgrade the slum and its inhabitants, this is not an immediately viable option. The challenge of geohelminth control in these slums must be to determine the degree of environmental contamination by human faeces containing infective eggs, to ascertain the survival rate of the eggs and larvae and to implement a control programme together with suitable education of the inhabitants. The Parasite Control Programme should take into consideration that many slum-dwelling children do not go to school and need to be treated at home. A further factor that will have to be taken into account is that lack of influx control to urban areas will mean the continual reinfection of slum-dwellers by the movement from the rural areas. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

The coastal forests of Kenya represent a rare and threatened forest type which has over 3,000 plant taxa, of which about 500 are endemic. The patches which comprise this forest type include sacred forests, the kayas, that are rich in biodiversity. The aim of the study report was to investigate the phytosociological relationships in two selected kayas, Mtswakara and Fungo, and the plant utilisation by the people of the Duruma and Giriama tribes who live around these forests. The vegetation was sampled using the phytosociological approach developed by Braun-Blanquet. In kaya Mtswakara 51 relevés of 0.2 ha. were sampled and a total of 317 species from 191 genera in 79 families were recorded, representing 48 tree species, 134 shrubs, 82 herbs, 45 climbers, and 8 epiphytes. In kaya Fungo, 280 species from 213 genera in 74 families, representing 35 tree species, 125 shrubs, 73 herbs, 43 climbers, and 3 epiphytes, were recorded in 54 relevés. TWINSPAN classification of the data indicated the existence of four plant communities and six sub-communities in kaya Mtswakara; and three plant communities, four sub-communities, three stages, three sub-stages and one undetermined vegetation type in kaya Fungo. The phytosociological results indicated that diagnostic species for plant communities are not necessarily the dominant tree species; and interactions of edaphic factors, plant resource extraction, fire and grazing influenced the formation and distribution of vegetation types. The human populations living around the forests depend upon and utilise plant species found in the kayas to meet some of their basic domestic needs and cultural requirements. But, unlike in the past, the council of kaya elders (ngambi) cannot address all the forest management problems, due to factors such as increased disrespect of cultural traditions in the communities, increasing demands of forest plant resources due to population increase, conflicts between local faction groups claiming legitimacy in kaya management and socio-political changes. Surveys conducted in the local markets showed that although forest plants formed a small percentage of the building poles traded, the firewood trade was considerable. In addition to the regular market trade, there is a 'house-to-house' trade conducted by some community members who sell poles, timber planks and firewood which probably had been collected from the kayas. Although a considerable amount of pole resource wais available in the kayas the observed vegetation degeneration through plant resource extraction, fire, and grazing, was likely to be at a faster rate compared to the natural regenerative ability of the forests, thus threatening the existence of these kayas forests. The immediate challenges facing kaya conservation, therefore, include re-empowering the cultural management systems, and the provision of short-term and long-term alternatives for the forest plant resources in the face of increasing demand for the resources and social change. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2000. / People and Plants (UNESCO)

Stratospheric ozone plays an important role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation. The well-known depletion of the ozone layer has raised several concerns in terms of an expected increase in surface ultraviolet radiation. South Africa, situated in the southern mid-latitude regions, has experienced a general downward trend in total column ozone since 1979, As a result of this negative trend in total column ozone, the ultraviolet flux at the earth's surface is expected to increase. Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation is known to have acute and chronic effects on human health, including erythema and skin cancer. Numerous studies have acknowledged a relationship between childhood ultraviolet radiation exposure and the risk of contracting skin cancer, namely malignant melanoma, during adulthood. The aim of this study is to investigate the ultraviolet radiation dose and exposure of children and adolescents in Durban, South Africa. Polysulphone film badges were used to quantify the daily erythemal ultraviolet radiation dose of 30 individuals of varying ages and skin types, engaged in different activities, over a one-week period during summer. The results highlight the diversity of childrens' and adolescents' behavioural patterns, with behaviour being found to play an important role in determining an individual's ultraviolet radiation dose. The mean daily erythemal ultraviolet radiation dose of the children and adolescents was 1.03 MED units with a median of 0.57 MED units and a 95% range of 0.22 - 7.22 MED units. The most striking finding was that the median value was below the critical value of 1 MED unit. An explanation for the unexpectedly low erythemal ultraviolet radiation doses recorded in this study was sought in the prevailing climatic conditions. Ambient erythemal ultraviolet radiation levels recorded during the study period were high, ranging between 20.57 - 30.60 MED units. However, high temperatures (>27°C), coupled with high humidity values, may have encouraged the children and adolescents to avoid direct sunlight and find shade while outdoors. The daily erythemal ultraviolet radiation doses of the children and adolescents were also compared to the ambient erythemal ultraviolet radiation levels received on a horizontal surface by a YES UVB-l pyranometer located at the University of Natal (Durban). Children and adolescents in Durban received approximately 4.58% of the total daily ambient erythemal ultraviolet radiation incident upon a horizontal surface. This was found to be similar to a study (5 - 6%) conducted by Diffey et al. (1996) in England, as well as a study (4 - 8%) by Gies et al. (1998) in Brisbane, Australia. The personal ultraviolet radiation exposure journals of the children and adolescents were used to determine the timing of exposures, duration of exposures and nature of outdoor activities and these were then related to their daily ultraviolet radiation doses. Of all the factors considered, the nature of an individual's activity was found to have the strongest influence in determining their ultraviolet radiation dose. An activity model was derived in order to investigate the effect of activity on ultraviolet radiation dose, where three activity factors, namely swimming, walking and tennis, were calculated for a South African context and compared with those from previous international studies. It was found that the activity factors derived in this study were similar to Holman et al. (1983) and Herlihy et al. (1994) and may be used in an activity model to estimate individual erythemal ultraviolet radiation dose for a particular activity. The value of this innovative activity model lies in its ability to predict individual ultraviolet radiation dose and this may help to emphasise the importance of responsible outdoor behaviour. A mannequin was used to quantify the anatomical distribution of erythemal ultraviolet radiation under clear sky and overcast conditions. It was found that the vertex of the head and shoulders received the highest erythemal ultraviolet radiation doses under both conditions. This was then related to the erythemal ultraviolet radiation doses of the children and adolescents as recorded by the polysulphone film badges in order to identify anatomic sites susceptible to high erythemal ultraviolet radiation doses. Behaviour alternatives and ultraviolet radiation protective mechanisms were discussed and recommendations made for children and adolescents residing in Durban. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2002.