East Timor is a former colony of Portugal and one-time province of Indonesia. Portuguese colonization ended in 1975 amid brief civil warring between local political parties that had recently been established. This conflict was followed by an Indonesian military invasion, ushering in a period of domination that only ended in 1999 when the United Nations carried out a referendum by which to determine East Timor's future. But this occupation also ended with much violence, generating bitter sentiments between elites that has hampered democratisation even as independence has been won. One of the conclusions made in this study is that East Timor's transition to democracy fails to correlate fully with any of the modal processes outlined in the literature. Rather, in the case of East Timor, a number of pathways merge. In some ways, it begins with what Huntington conceptualized as bottom-up 'replacement', with local mass publics voting against their oppressors. But one of the factors that quickly distinguished this case is that the voting by which change was organized by an external force, the United Nations (UN), and targeted a foreign power, the Indonesian government. In this way, the processes of independence and democratisation were nearly coterminous. East Timor's progress was also complicated by Indonesia's responding to the referendum's outcome by instigating much violence through the militia groups that it controlled. This summoned yet another external actor, the Australian military. It also greatly extended the role of the UN, geared now to restarting the democratisation process by organising founding elections. But if East Timor's democratic transition is complex, an account of the precariousness of the democracy that has been brought about is straightforward. Put simply, given the weakness of institutions and civil society organization, this thesis restores attention to the autonomy and voluntarism possessed by national elites. The hypothesis guiding this thesis, then, is that elites are disunified, but have avoided any return to outright warring. Further, they are at most 'semi-loyal' in their attitudes toward democracy. Accordingly, democracy persists in East Timor, but is subject to many abuses. Thus, most of the research in this thesis seeks to explain elite-level attitudes and relations. In particular, it shows that cooperation between elites and shared commitments to democracy has been hampered by the diversity of their backgrounds. Some elites gained their standings and outlooks under Indonesian occupation. Others gained their statuses because of the guerrilla resistance they mounted against this occupation. The attitudes of other elites were deeply coloured by their experiences in a multitude of countries, including Indonesia, Portugal, Mozambique and Australia. This thesis then demonstrates that these diverse origins and standings have shaped elite attitudes and relations in ways that are unfavourable for political stability and democracy. Under Portuguese rule, three distinct elite groups emerged in East Timor: top government administrators, business elites and young professionals or intellectuals. In the last years of Portuguese domination, they formed some political parties, enabling them to emerge as political elites. Lacking what Higley et al. label structural integration and value consensus, these elites engaged in violent conflict that peaked in brief civil warring and triggered the Indonesian occupation. This elite-level disunity persisted during occupation, with elites continuing to use violence against each other. National elites were also diversified further, with the administrators and resistors joined by pro-Indonesian groups, the Catholic Church group, and nationalist intellectuals, hence extending the range of social origins and ideological outlooks. East Timor finally gained independence in 2002. However, this thesis shows that elite relations still lack integration and consensus. Their country's political frameworks were negotiated by officials from Portugal and Indonesia under the auspices of the UN. Moreover, even after the referendum sponsored by the UN was held, UN officials in New York overshadowed the preferences and decision making of national elites. This exclusion denied East Timorese elites the opportunity to learn and to habituate themselves in making political decisions based on peaceful dialogue and bargaining. Thus, while the use of overt violence diminished, elites continued to harbour deep suspicions, encouraging their use of manipulations, subterfuge, and violence by proxy in their dealings with one another. In consequence, tensions between elites in East Timor, while stopping short of outright warring, continue to simmer. It is thus uncertain whether, or for how long, these tensions might be contained by the formal institutions and procedures that have been put in place. Analysis is also clouded by the fact that in the wake of independence, still more kinds of elites have appeared on the scene. New fault lines thus stem from generational membership (older and younger), geographic location (diaspora and homegrown), and new kinds of organisational bases (political parties, state bureaucracy, security forces, business, the Catholic Church, and civil society). These elites have only begun to interact with another directly and regularly since East Timor's independence. They find that they possess different outlooks and levels of influence and power. Nonetheless, despite these inauspicious beginnings, it is important to underscore the fact that since independence, elites have refrained from the open warring that they once undertook. This thesis predicts that sustained elite skirmishing, but not open warring, and semi-democratic politics, rather than 'full' democracy or hard authoritarianism will persist. Much should be made clearer, though, by the ways in which the next parliamentary election, due in 2007, is conducted.

Bibliography: leaves 173-198. / xii, 198 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / A theoretical and empirical study of the roles of foreign aid, trade and investment for East Timor's economic reconstruction and development after the 1999 crisis. This study finds that openness to international trade and investment helps channel new ideas and improves terms of trade, and is crucial for East Timor's sustained development path. It is also shown that fostering democratic institutions and facilitating private sector entrepreneurship all reinforce each other. Well developed regional and multilateral trading arrangements have the potential to contribute positively to the process. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Adelaide University, Dept. of Economics, 2001

No description available.

This thesis is a history of Indonesian colonialism in East Timor told through the lens of East Timorese children transferred to Indonesia. During the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, between 1975 and 1999, individuals and institutions representing the occupying power transferred many East Timorese children and young people to Indonesia to receive an Indonesian education. Among them were approximately four thousand young, dependent children. The story of the transfers provides a rich and textured insight into the socio-cultural aspect of the Indonesia-East Timor relationship. This dimension is often missing in the academic literature on East Timor, which has been mainly concerned with the “big issues”—politics, security, international relations and human rights. The thesis is also a history “from below,” of the marginalised and weak whose perspective is often ignored in accounts of national histories. From the transfers we learn of East Timorese taking up the many generous educational opportunities offered by the Indonesians, opportunities denied to most East Timorese during the Portuguese colonial era. The transfers reveal Indonesians from all backgrounds showing compassion towards destitute and vulnerable East Timorese children, some of whom would have died had they not been taken in by Indonesians. Some of the children were adopted and lovingly raised in homes in Indonesia, while others were cared for in state-run or religious institutions. However, the transfers also expose the patronising attitudes of many Indonesians who regarded the East Timorese as backward and primitive. The Indonesians were so sure of their good intentions that they justified delivering development, including transferring children, often in breach of the rights of the East Timorese: some children were taken against their wishes; some parents were coerced or forced to hand over their children; some children were abused and neglected in their adoptive homes and in the institutions caring for them. Further, Indonesia’s proclaimed altruism in developing the territory was underpinned by other motives, as is exemplified by the transfers, in which political, ideological, personal, religious and economic motives, not humanitarian concern alone, were key factors. The refusal of the international community to recognise Indonesia’s claim over East Timor played a significant role in leading Indonesians to demonstrate their concern to develop East Timor, which included providing educational opportunities and caring for destitute children in their homes and institutions. However, the Indonesian authorities also hoped that these East Timorese students and children, raised in Indonesia as Indonesians, would contribute to affording legitimacy to integration. The thesis highlights the appropriation of vulnerable and dependent children in political projects of control; in themselves the children embodied the aim of the Indonesians for all East Timorese—namely, to make them Indonesians. The thesis is the first attempt to provide a detailed account and analysis of these child transfers. Besides providing a set of new data, it is an example of the multifaceted nature of colonial relationships and the ambiguities and complexities they embody. The story also continues to be important in this post-colonial era as it enriches our understanding of the new relationship that is developing across an entirely different border, between newly-democratic Indonesia and independent East Timor.

Thesis (Ph.D.) - James Cook University, 2004. / Typescript (photocopy). Bibliography: leaves 385-402.

A small island nation near Australia was invaded and occupied by the Indonesian military regime in 1975, which lasted until 1999. This dissertation examines the global solidarity movement, whose success was due to the skill of its leaders, the collective agency transnational mobilization, effective social movement framing, which helped to create, act upon, and transform important critical junctures throughout the conflict. The East Timorese resistance movement against the Indonesian occupation took an ethnically and politically fragmented society and transformed it into a powerful transnational resistance movement that brough together military, clandestine, diplomatic, and global civil society actors together in supporting East Timor’s right to self-determination. Social movement frames punctuate the severity, immorality, and injustice of conditions. However, existing accounts on claims-making, framing trajectories, and outcomes tend to downplay the influence of contingency and indeterminacy in social movements. Indeed, as social constructionists contend, collective constructions are historically produced and culturally contingent. As claims-makers advance public claims developed within institutional realities, this underscores the range of contingencies and uncertainties actors manage in mobilizing their agendas. With East Timor's case, this sandwich thesis contends that understanding social movement framing and trajectories requires keeping institutional, discursive, and geopolitical contexts intact. Movements are embedded in histories, institutions, or fields that shape the outcome of framing trajectories and the outcome of social movement claims-making. However, social constructionists help us understand that resources, frames, and opportunities are perceived and constructed by actors. Therefore, the theoretical perspective provides substantial credence to the roles of contingency and human agency in social movement mobilization. Ultimately, objective structures, such as political/discursive opportunities or legal texts, are not enabling but generate social movement action insofar as moral agents perceive them. Often, this work is discursively constructed. This reality underscores the dimension of contingency in social action and social movement framing and mobilization because objective structures do not automatically determine what actors will select as a specific course of collective action or framing strategies. Frame and framing trajectories are particular to, and instantiated in, the contexts and develop over time as moral agents mobilize meaning by interacting with targets, sensitive to local conditions, emergent contingencies, and competing interests. By focusing on the social framing process, I show how framing or collective action frames emerge and are diffused in different ways across national contexts. The emphasis is not to address the broader institutionalized logics, such as political/discursive opportunities and geopolitics, but to understand how these aspects are incorporated in the framing practices of moral agents as strategic action as “endogenous to a field of actors” (Lounsbury et al., 2003:72), whose interests and national, not only transnational, but embeddedness also influence the interactional dynamics of their framing actions and trajectories. In this way, framing practices can be understood as struggles over audiences' minds and hearts, where actors compete in moral politics to secure symbolic power and political legitimacy. The macro-level logic indeed impacts the structure of frames. The diffusion and acceleration of claims within historically contingent events depend simultaneously on pre-existing, strong cultural framing and an influential social movement culture rooted in the abstract ideals of human rights that are transnationally dispersed but integrated. Strategic framing choices depend on various logic. Firstly, expanding political and discursive opportunities is crucial in accelerating mobilization. Moreover, the diffusion of frames and public claims can further propel mobilization and help to build convergences across sociopolitical allies. Agency and structure are often interpenetrating. Namely, depending on the choices made by actors at specific ‘critical junctures,’ they can either propel the social force of mobilization or hamper it, depending on perceived choices (agency). Social movements, especially transnational advocacy networks, prove more effective in frame diffusion when they build solidarities around shared meaning and international norms (human rights) that allow them to converge effectively around shared purposes and sustain collective mobilization across extended periods. Transnational networks of solidarity (the global solidarity movement) harnessed collective mobilization at the global level by converging the diffusion of their frames and claims around human rights talk. The thesis also considers various logics such as path dependency, contingency, historical events, and geopolitics in shaping the national and global movement mobilization and claims-making field. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

A presente pesquisa tem como escopo reunir e comentar a Literatura de Timor-Leste em língua portuguesa, tendo como base seus principais representantes. Das lendas às narrativas de viagem, da poesia dos escritores politicamente engajados aos romances escritos na diáspora, o presente estudo procura identificar as principais questões que estiveram no horizonte dos timorenses em diferentes momentos de sua história, assim como delinear a imagem que o conjunto desses textos acabou por produzir de Timor na contemporaneidade. / This research has the objective to gather and review the literature of Timor-Leste in Portuguese, based on its main representatives. The legends to travel narratives, poetry politically engaged writers of the novels written in the diaspora, this study seeks to identify the key issues that were on the horizon of the East Timorese at different times in its history, as well as outline the image that all these texts eventually produced the Timor nowadays.

A presente pesquisa tem como escopo reunir e comentar a Literatura de Timor-Leste em língua portuguesa, tendo como base seus principais representantes. Das lendas às narrativas de viagem, da poesia dos escritores politicamente engajados aos romances escritos na diáspora, o presente estudo procura identificar as principais questões que estiveram no horizonte dos timorenses em diferentes momentos de sua história, assim como delinear a imagem que o conjunto desses textos acabou por produzir de Timor na contemporaneidade. / This research has the objective to gather and review the literature of Timor-Leste in Portuguese, based on its main representatives. The legends to travel narratives, poetry politically engaged writers of the novels written in the diaspora, this study seeks to identify the key issues that were on the horizon of the East Timorese at different times in its history, as well as outline the image that all these texts eventually produced the Timor nowadays.

Esta dissertação tem como objetivo principal realizar uma primeira descrição do sistema fonético e fonológico da língua idaté, falada no Timor Leste na cidade de Manatuto. Esta análise foi feita por meio de um levantamento de dados com falantes nativos residentes no Brasil e com as coletas realizadas em pesquisa de campo no Timor Leste. Primeiramente foi realizada uma transcrição dos sons da língua de acordo com o IPA (Alfabético Fonético Internacional) e foi elaborado um inventário do sistema fonético-articulatório. Depois da análise fonética foi realizada uma análise fonológica para descrever como o sistema de sons está organizado visando verificar quais são os sons distintivos, juntamente com seus traços, quais são os alofones, os processos fonológicos, uma descrição da estrutura silábica e considerações sobre os traços prosódicos. A língua idaté ainda não possui uma ortografia oficial e também quase não há estudos lingüísticos sobre ela. Sabe-se que o estudo aprofundado de uma língua possibilita o desenvolvimento das pesquisas linguísticas e também contribui para o fortalecimento da identidade cultural de um povo. Este fator ainda se torna mais importante em relação a línguas pouco estudadas e que ainda não possuem nenhum registro escrito, pois com o tempo, muitas delas podem ser extintas sem terem sido nem registradas. / The main goal of this dissertation is to give a first description of the phonetical and phonological system of the language Idaté, spoken in the city of Manatuto in East Timor. This analysis was made with data elicited from native speakers of Idaté living in Brasil and with the research in field work in East Timor. First a transcription of speech sounds of the language was given, using the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) and an inventory of the phonetic system of Idaté was made. After this phonetic analysis, a phonological analysis was made to describe how the system of sounds is organized, being aimed to check which are the distinct sounds, as well the features, the allophones, the phonological processes, a description of the syllabic structure and the prosodic characteristics in the language. Idaté does not have an official orthographic system yet and there are not many linguistic studies about this language. It is known that a deep study about a language allows the development of linguistic research and also helps to strengthen the cultural identity of the people. This factor is more important related to languages that have few studies about and that have not written records, since such languages may die without being previously analyzed.

Esta dissertação tem como objetivo principal realizar uma primeira descrição do sistema fonético e fonológico da língua idaté, falada no Timor Leste na cidade de Manatuto. Esta análise foi feita por meio de um levantamento de dados com falantes nativos residentes no Brasil e com as coletas realizadas em pesquisa de campo no Timor Leste. Primeiramente foi realizada uma transcrição dos sons da língua de acordo com o IPA (Alfabético Fonético Internacional) e foi elaborado um inventário do sistema fonético-articulatório. Depois da análise fonética foi realizada uma análise fonológica para descrever como o sistema de sons está organizado visando verificar quais são os sons distintivos, juntamente com seus traços, quais são os alofones, os processos fonológicos, uma descrição da estrutura silábica e considerações sobre os traços prosódicos. A língua idaté ainda não possui uma ortografia oficial e também quase não há estudos lingüísticos sobre ela. Sabe-se que o estudo aprofundado de uma língua possibilita o desenvolvimento das pesquisas linguísticas e também contribui para o fortalecimento da identidade cultural de um povo. Este fator ainda se torna mais importante em relação a línguas pouco estudadas e que ainda não possuem nenhum registro escrito, pois com o tempo, muitas delas podem ser extintas sem terem sido nem registradas. / The main goal of this dissertation is to give a first description of the phonetical and phonological system of the language Idaté, spoken in the city of Manatuto in East Timor. This analysis was made with data elicited from native speakers of Idaté living in Brasil and with the research in field work in East Timor. First a transcription of speech sounds of the language was given, using the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) and an inventory of the phonetic system of Idaté was made. After this phonetic analysis, a phonological analysis was made to describe how the system of sounds is organized, being aimed to check which are the distinct sounds, as well the features, the allophones, the phonological processes, a description of the syllabic structure and the prosodic characteristics in the language. Idaté does not have an official orthographic system yet and there are not many linguistic studies about this language. It is known that a deep study about a language allows the development of linguistic research and also helps to strengthen the cultural identity of the people. This factor is more important related to languages that have few studies about and that have not written records, since such languages may die without being previously analyzed.