This study examined the psychosocial variables of assertiveness, intimate relationships, interpersonal distrust, and social self-esteem in eating disordered and non-eating disordered women. Assertiveness was examined between three eating disordered subgroups, namely, restricting anorexics, previously anorexic bulimics, and never anorexic bulimics, in an attempt to answer the question: Are there differences in assertiveness between these subgroups? Intimate relationships, interpersonal distrust, and social self-esteem were examined between the overall eating disordered group and the non-eating disordered group. It was expected that eating disordered women, as compared to non-eating disordered women would report more difficulty in establishing and maintaining intimate relationships, higher interpersonal distrust, and lower social self-esteem. The subjects were 82 females (41 eating disordered and 41 non-eating disordered), aged 19 to 40 years. Eating disordered subjects were recruited from a local support group for women with eating disorders. None of the eating disordered subjects were hospitalized at the time of testing. Eating disordered subjects were classified using the DSM-III (1980) criteria for anorexia nervosa and Russell's (1979) criteria for bulimia nervosa. Non-eating disordered subjects were nursing students at a local community college. Non-eating disordered subjects were screened using the Eating Attitudes Test in order to prevent the inclusion of women with mild eating disorders into the comparison group. All subjects completed a battery of tests including: The Eating Attitudes Test; The Assertion Inventory; The Adult Self-Perception Profile; The Eating Disorder Inventory; The Social Self-Esteem Inventory; arid a demographic information sheet. All subjects were weighed and their height measured. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance was computed for the assertiveness measures of discomfort and response probability, examining differences between the three eating disordered subgroups. No significant differences were found. Post hoc analysis between the overall eating disordered group and the non-eating disordered group revealed highly significant differences between the two groups on both assertiveness measures (ϱ<.001). An examination of the means revealed that the eating disordered group experiences more discomfort in situations requiring assertiveness, and are less likely to respond assertively in those situations. Intimate relationships, interpersonal distrust, and social self-esteem were tested using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance. Differences were tested between the eating disordered and non-eating disordered groups. Highly significant differences were found between the groups on all three measures (ϱ<.001). An examination of the means revealed that the eating disordered group have more difficulty in forming and maintaining intimate relationships, a greater degree of interpersonal distrust, and less social self-esteem. Implications of these results and suggestions for future research are discussed. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

Although many factors have been Implicated in the etiology and maintenance of anorexia nervosa and bulimia, anxiety, particularly in the context of eating, may be critical. Applying the tri-partite model of anxiety, this study was designed to assess anxiety before, during, and after eating in eating disorder and normal control subjects. The experimental eating procedure was preceded by a neutral task. Four groups of ten female subjects each participated: normal-weight females, restricting-anorexics, bulimic-anorexics, and bulimics. Anxiety was assessed by self-report (ratings of pleasure, arousal, and anxiety), psychophysiological (heart rate and skin conductance) and behavioural (food consumption) measures. Controls reported themselves to be non-anxious throughout the study arid ate almost all of the small test meal. Somewhat surprisingly, physiological arousal (especially heart rate) was high during eating. During the neutral task, heart rate declined slightly in all groups. The eating disorder groups indicated a high level of anxiety throughout the study which showed a trend to increase further during eating. In addition, anorexics and bulimics described dysfunctional beliefs regarding the effects of eating on body shape and weight. Similar to controls, physiological arousal was high during eating. Overall, heart rate proved to be a more useful measure of arousal than skin conductance because many anorexics were hyporesponsive. Restricting-anorexics ate the least amount, bulimic-anorexics ate slightly more, and bulimics ate similar amounts to controls. Thus, food consumption was probably associated with weight status. Several conclusions were drawn. Women with eating disorders have a high level of general anxiety probably because of a conflict between biological pressures to eat and fears of weight gain. The high physiological arousal during eating appears to reinforce perceptions of anxiety. The eating disorder groups showed different degrees of concordance among measures of anxiety. Borrowing from the research on phobias, therapeutic procedures such as cognitive therapy, progressive relaxation, and exposure treatments can address the different components of anxiety anorexics and bulimics experience during eating. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

The aim of the present study was to investigate the characteristics and interaction patterns in the families of adolescent eating—disordered patients. Four groups of female adolescents and their mothers (restrictive anorexic, bulimic type, psychiatric control, and nonpsychiatric control) were assessed on a number of self-report instruments: The Family Environment Scale, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire, Sex Role Ideology Scale, Food Fitness and Looks Questionnaire, and Body Esteem Scale. Support was found for the hypothesis that the families of bulimic type and psychiatric control subjects are characterized as more dysfunctional than the families of restrictive anorexic and nonpsychiatric control subjects. In particular, restrictive anorexic and nonpsychiatric control mothers and daughters characterized their families as more cohesive than did bulimic type and psychiatric control mothers and daughters. No differences were found amongst the four groups on expressiveness, conflict, independence, organization, control, or marital adjustment. These family interaction data were found to vary with the adolescent’s level of depression, general psychiatric distress, and impulsivity, but only for daughters, not for mothers. Little support was found for the hypothesis that restrictive anorexic and bulimic type mothers and daughters are characterized as higher in achievement orientation, traditional sex role ideology, and weight and appearance orientation than psychiatric control mothers and daughters. There were no group differences with respect to individual or family achievement orientation; however, restrictive anorexic and nonpsychiatric control daughters did have higher school grades than psychiatric control daughters. No differences in sex role ideology were found amongst the groups. Restrictive anorexic and bulimic type daughters, but not mothers, ascribed greater importance to weight and had more negative attitudes toward their own weight than psychiatric and nonpsychiatric control daughters. No group differences were found for mothers or daughters with respect to attitude toward one’s own attractiveness or importance ascribed to appearance or fitness. Potential explanations for lack of congruence with the theoretical literature are advanced, and the possible specificity of family pseudocohesiveness and problem denial to eating disorders is discussed.

The purpose of this study was to examine the governing scripts in the lives of women with eating disorders via narrative analysis. Interviews were conducted with 5 women with eating disorders (EDs), whose ages ranged from 27 years to 36 years. An average of two interviews per participant took place, with each interview being recorded and transcribed. The interviews centred around early recollections (ERs) and dream reports, which were gathered in the context of their life-stories. The participants were recruited from private counselling practices, psychiatric practices, and family practices, and were considered suitable for the study if they expressed an interest in participating in the study, and their attending therapist or doctor was satisfied they fit the DSM-1V (APA, 1994) criteria for an eating disorder. Tomkins' (1979, 1987, 1991) script theory provided the theoretical underpinnings to the research, with Carlson's (1981, 1986) script-theoretic analysis as the primary methodological tool. Alexander's (1988) method of accessing scripts via principal identifiers of salience was used in conjunction with script-theoretic analysis when applicable. The ERs were examined for evidence of the nuclear scene, followed by analysis of the life-stories and dream stories for magnifications of the nuclear scene in the form of analogs and anti-analogs. The results showed the following commonalities: a) that a story of perceived loss of the parent or parental figure was at the heart of each nuclear scene, with the script threading through each woman's life as a theme of "longing for mother" or "a quest for love"; b) that the nuclear script was profoundly reactivated at the time of the development of each participant's ED; c) a family "no talk" rule about negative feelings and traumatic events; d) participants had difficult relationships with their mothers; e) a perception of home as unsafe, manifested in a recurring nightmare from childhood; f) participants responded to stress in their homes by adopting the personality of the "perfect girl" according to family values; g) body-image/self-image disturbances predated the eating disorder; and h) that traditional gender-roles and attitudes towards women were present in all the families in varying ways. More narrative research of the lives of women with EDs is needed to confirm and support these findings.

This thesis sets out to critically examine Guidano's model of psychopathology in eating-disordered individuals . The literature review highlights the diverse etiological approaches that have been taken in understanding eating disorders. Guidano's model is presented as an alternative to traditional approaches . It is a developmental, unitary model of psychopathology, conceptualised within a systems/process-oriented approach to organised complexity. Within a qualitative framework, case study methodology is utilised to test the viability and limitations of Guidano's model. Four in-depth case histories are presented which offer appropriate material for the testing of the model. The data is analysed using the reading guide method and presented in terms of the four features of Guidano's model: (1) dysfunctional patterns of attachment; (2) sense of self; (3) major themes on systemic coherence; (4) common coping strategies. The findings of the research support Guidano's model of psychopathology in eating-disordered individuals. The findings are: (1) attachment styles are ambiguous, "intrusive, and enmeshed; participants experience a disappointment in the preferential attachment relationship; (2) that participants' sense of self is blurred and wavering; (3) the major theme on systemic coherence is the oscillation between seeking and avoiding intimacy; (4) common coping strategies are: the seeking of supportive intimacy with minimal self-exposure; withdrawal into the self; perfectionism; the development of an eating disorder; continuous thoughts about food, eating, and weight which prevents participants from becoming aware of the real issues confronting them. An evaluation of Guidano's model in terms of its specific contribution to knowledge and research on the role of father in child and adolescent psychopathology, as well as how father effects evidence in eating disorders, demonstrates the model's value as an explanatory tool and raises implications for future treatment, theory, and research practices of eating-disordered individuals.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the characteristics and interaction patterns in the families of adolescent eating—disordered patients. Four groups of female adolescents and their mothers (restrictive anorexic, bulimic type, psychiatric control, and nonpsychiatric control) were assessed on a number of self-report instruments: The Family Environment Scale, Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire, Sex Role Ideology Scale, Food Fitness and Looks Questionnaire, and Body Esteem Scale. Support was found for the hypothesis that the families of bulimic type and psychiatric control subjects are characterized as more dysfunctional than the families of restrictive anorexic and nonpsychiatric control subjects. In particular, restrictive anorexic and nonpsychiatric control mothers and daughters characterized their families as more cohesive than did bulimic type and psychiatric control mothers and daughters. No differences were found amongst the four groups on expressiveness, conflict, independence, organization, control, or marital adjustment. These family interaction data were found to vary with the adolescent’s level of depression, general psychiatric distress, and impulsivity, but only for daughters, not for mothers. Little support was found for the hypothesis that restrictive anorexic and bulimic type mothers and daughters are characterized as higher in achievement orientation, traditional sex role ideology, and weight and appearance orientation than psychiatric control mothers and daughters. There were no group differences with respect to individual or family achievement orientation; however, restrictive anorexic and nonpsychiatric control daughters did have higher school grades than psychiatric control daughters. No differences in sex role ideology were found amongst the groups. Restrictive anorexic and bulimic type daughters, but not mothers, ascribed greater importance to weight and had more negative attitudes toward their own weight than psychiatric and nonpsychiatric control daughters. No group differences were found for mothers or daughters with respect to attitude toward one’s own attractiveness or importance ascribed to appearance or fitness. Potential explanations for lack of congruence with the theoretical literature are advanced, and the possible specificity of family pseudocohesiveness and problem denial to eating disorders is discussed. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

Dream theorists propose that dreams can balance conscious reality, and provide clues to unconscious processes complicating psychosomatic conditions. Little research has been done in the area of dreams and eating disorders. Based on data from a pilot study, and reports of eating-disordered women's dreams in the literature, the researcher hypothesised that eating-disordered women's dreams would contain a significant number of themes symbolizing the psychological states underlying their condition. Of particular interest was a sense of ineffectiveness, which has been the subject of many recent studies of eating-disordered women. The exploratory study compared the dream content of 12 eating-disordered and 11 normal women, aged 20 to 35 years. The 275 dreams were rated by 8 "blind" raters according to a 91-item eating disorder specific dream rating scale, which registered dream content such as attitudes of helplessness, images of anger, self-hate, and affect. A high level of inter-rater reliability was obtained. A questionnaire assessing motivational states (General Causality Orientation Scale; GCOS) was also administered. The data were analyzed by the independent t-test. The results showed strong significance in the occurrence of themes of ineffectiveness in the eating-disordered women's dreams (p = .001), which corresponded with the findings on the GCOS (p< .001). Also significantly present in the target group's dreams were themes of self-hate, anger, inability to nourish themselves, an obsession with weight, and the presence of negative emotions. An additional finding was a strongly significant presence of a sense of impending doom at the end of eating-disordered women's dreams (p < .001). These results suggest that dreams may provide an additional resource in understanding eating disorders. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

The purpose of this study was to examine the governing scripts in the lives of women with eating disorders via narrative analysis. Interviews were conducted with 5 women with eating disorders (EDs), whose ages ranged from 27 years to 36 years. An average of two interviews per participant took place, with each interview being recorded and transcribed. The interviews centred around early recollections (ERs) and dream reports, which were gathered in the context of their life-stories. The participants were recruited from private counselling practices, psychiatric practices, and family practices, and were considered suitable for the study if they expressed an interest in participating in the study, and their attending therapist or doctor was satisfied they fit the DSM-1V (APA, 1994) criteria for an eating disorder. Tomkins' (1979, 1987, 1991) script theory provided the theoretical underpinnings to the research, with Carlson's (1981, 1986) script-theoretic analysis as the primary methodological tool. Alexander's (1988) method of accessing scripts via principal identifiers of salience was used in conjunction with script-theoretic analysis when applicable. The ERs were examined for evidence of the nuclear scene, followed by analysis of the life-stories and dream stories for magnifications of the nuclear scene in the form of analogs and anti-analogs. The results showed the following commonalities: a) that a story of perceived loss of the parent or parental figure was at the heart of each nuclear scene, with the script threading through each woman's life as a theme of "longing for mother" or "a quest for love"; b) that the nuclear script was profoundly reactivated at the time of the development of each participant's ED; c) a family "no talk" rule about negative feelings and traumatic events; d) participants had difficult relationships with their mothers; e) a perception of home as unsafe, manifested in a recurring nightmare from childhood; f) participants responded to stress in their homes by adopting the personality of the "perfect girl" according to family values; g) body-image/self-image disturbances predated the eating disorder; and h) that traditional gender-roles and attitudes towards women were present in all the families in varying ways. More narrative research of the lives of women with EDs is needed to confirm and support these findings. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate