This longitudinal, nine-semester, teacher research investigation focuses upon young, hearing-impaired students' responses to literature through the sign systems of Language, drama and art. Theories underlying this study are the transactional theory of literature as conceptualized by Louise Rosenblatt (1938-1983) and the semiotic process of signification put forth by C. S. Peirce (1839-1914). The questions guiding this investigation focused upon (1) the role of literature in this classroom, (2) the role of dramatization in students' "lived-through" experiences of literature, (3) patterns of visual and verbal response in these students' drawings and dictations, and (4) changes in these children's visual and verbal literary responses over the course of time. Research findings indicated a steadfast pattern of visual response (n = 559), i.e., students depicted story characters (94%), story settings (3%), or something else brought to mind (3%) in responding to literature through art. This focus was found also in students' accompanying dictations which explicated story characters' actions or feelings 41% of the time. These dictated responses revealed that students also gave retellings of story events (22%), paraphrases of story events (20%), identifications of items in drawings (4%), combined paraphrase/retellings of story events (4%), evaluations (6%) or other types of statements (1%). This study indicates that retelling as a form of literary response can serve multiple purposes within the classroom context and merits further investigation. Uniquely characteristic and focused themes of personal response were found in this investigation as well. Three of these themes are explicated in case studies of selected students whose responses to classroom literary experiences led each to pursue a path of self-realization as an artist, language learner, and contemplator of self-identity. This study indicates that contextualized literary experience within and across multiple sign systems allowed these hearing-impaired students to develop multifaceted understandings of literature, art, drama, language and life. These multifaceted understandings, in turn, led these children to deeper understandings of their own worlds of experience.

This study was designed to investigate perceived levels of involvement and training needs of elementary principals in special education. Perceptions of 133 elementary principals, 13 special education directors and 33 university faculty members were examined and compared regarding principals' role in special education. Participant responded to a survey developed and pilot-tested for this study that examined principals' involvement in thirty-six special education activities; ideal level of involvement; and types of training needed to best support principals in managing special education programs in their schools. Inferential analyses included Mixed Model MANOVAs to determine: the relationship between the three groups and three areas of activities; the ideal levels of involvement; and differences in gender. General Linear Models were utilized to determine the effects of principals' training in special education. Mixed-Model and One-Way ANOVAs determined desired areas of training for principals. Results suggest that the more course work that principals take in special education, the greater is their involvement in special education. Principals perceived that they are more involved in special education programs than was perceived by both directors and university faculty. Twice the number of significant differences were seen between principals and faculty than between principals and directors. There were no significant differences between male and female principals. Principals believed that they were currently functioning at their ideal level. Conversely, directors believed that principals need to increase their involvement to reach an ideal level. No significant differences were found between principals and directors as to an ideal level of involvement. Faculty perceived that principals need to significantly expand their involvement to attain an ideal level. Principals selected Emerging Legal Issues in Special Education, Procedures for Special Education Discipline, and Proper Special Education Documentation as administrative areas for additional training. Principals indicated that they favored supplementary training in managing Behaviorally Disordered, Chronically Disciplined and Emotionally Disabled students. Results have implications for the need to more clearly define the role of principals in special education activities and to develop a standard for principals' involvement. In addition, results indicate a need for more adequate pre-service/in-service preparation of principals in the areas of special education.

Minority language people are sometimes simplistically viewed as lacking the language of the majority, and Deaf people are simplistically viewed as lacking hearing, thus ignoring the sociocultural realities of both groups. It is only in the last two decades that attempts have been made to articulate a Deaf ideology that considers deafness as a sociocultural characteristic rather than a defect. This dissertation asserts that there are three different types of ideologies that have co-existed since the beginning of time, and that influence deaf education even today: (1) Deafness as a terminal trait: this is defined as the type of ideology that places deaf individuals on a track that leads to a dead end. (2) Deafness as a limiting trait: This ideology views the deaf as handicapped people with limited possibilities for attaining the highest possible intellectual goals; and (3) Deafness as a socio-cultural trait: This ideology views deaf people as having their own language and culture who can fully develop their intellectual capacity through their natural language and culture and the language and culture of the hearing society in which they live, thus becoming bilingual and bicultural. This dissertation will answer the following question: How have these ideologies shaped deaf education in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, and Venezuela, in the areas of (a) language use; (b) educational trends; and (c) societal aims for the deaf population? The results of this research can help Latin American educators to re-evaluate deaf educational systems in use today, and educators of the deaf around the world. The Deaf in Hispanic America are witnessing the evolution of national paradigms as their languages are recognized as official in Venezuela, Uruguay, Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Cuba. Governments are taking legal action to recognize and to accept other forms of communication, such as sign language for the Deaf and Braille for the blind in Ecuador. The remaining countries do not recognize their sign language as official. Educators are implementing programs different approaches, such as oralism, Total Communication, and bilingual education, and integrating Deaf students into regular classes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the Taba Teaching Model on the growth of the higher level cognitive skills of Bahraini academically gifted students. The SEA Test, a test of higher level cognitive skills, developed by Callahan (1981) was used to measure the participants, higher cognitive skills before and after the implementation of the recommended Teaching Model, four questioning strategies, in enrichment classes. The participants were 51 academically gifted students enrolled in grades 7, 8, 9 and 10 in three government schools in Bahrain. These students were taught by five different teachers. The teaching took place in the period between the beginning of November 1997 to the end of May 1998. The t-test showed significant differences between the participants' means on the pretest and posttest (t = 10, p < .000). When breaking the total number of participants into small groups according to their teachers' levels of Teaching model implementation, grade level and different classroom teachers, the Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests showed differences between the 7th- and 10th-grade groups (Z = 1.907, p < .05) and 9th- and 10th-grade groups (Z = 2.798, p < .01), the groups of Teacher Hana and Teacher Mona (Z = 1.907, p < .05), the groups of Teacher Adel and Teacher Mona (Z = 2.643, p < .01) and the groups of Teacher Mona and Teacher Nadia (Z = 2.032, p < .05). In concurrence with other studies (Schiever, 1986; Brooks, 1987) conducted in the United States of America, this study produced evidence to support the use of the Taba Teaching Model with academically gifted students. And in agreement with both Schiever (1986) and Brooks (1987), to obtain better results, the Taba Teaching Model should be used more frequently over a long period of time and with emphasis on integrating teaching the higher cognitive skills with content area curriculum.

There is a limited understanding of the effects of practice on reading efficiency and comfort when students with low vision read standard print with optical devices. This descriptive study used a multiple baseline single-subject design to examine effects of practice on the reading rate, accuracy, duration and visual fatigue of three high school students with visual impairments when they read standard print with newly prescribed optical devices (reading spectacles). The study also examined differences between measures of reading efficiency and comfort when students read large print without optical devices and when they read standard print with optical devices. Baseline data were collected prior to intervention. Intervention consisted of daily practice sessions reading novels in standard print with individually prescribed optical devices for a maximum of thirty-eight minutes. Measures of reading efficiency and comfort were graphed daily during baseline and intervention. Oral reading rate, accuracy, and comprehension were probed during intervention and maintenance. A positive relationship between practice and oral reading rate was demonstrated for three students and a positive relationship for silent reading rate for two students. No relationship was demonstrated between practice and duration nor between practice and fatigue. One student maintained oral reading rate three weeks after cessation of practice sessions. There were no advantages for reading large print over reading standard print with optical devices for two of the students on measures of reading rate, accuracy, or duration; one student demonstrated no differences between reading media while the other demonstrated faster reading rates with standard print. One student demonstrated no differences in accuracy, but faster rates and longer duration with large print. Although students reported the same symptoms of visual fatigue with both media, they demonstrated more frequent occurrences of fatigue when reading standard print with optical devices. All expressed preference for reading standard print with reading spectacles. Reasons included portability, availability of materials, and social implications. There were two additional findings not related to the purposes of this study. Although all students were proficient readers, their oral and silent reading rates were almost equivalent. Individual patterns of miscues appeared to reflect students' visual field losses.

For more than a decade, little research has been done regarding the Cranmer abacus and its use. Attention to the Cranmer abacus and review of its potential as a learning aid has been minimal. Lack of recent abacus related study is addressed in this dissertation in two ways. First, some of the ideas previously examined from research conducted in the sixties, seventies, and early eighties is expanded on. Information is updated, and current facts and ideologies are summarized. Second, topics not mentioned in earlier studies are examined. Information pertaining to the Cranmer abacus was gathered in two ways. (1) A survey (Appendix B) was distributed to teachers in the United States who regularly teach mathematics with the abacus. (2) Part two was a semester long endeavor consisting of two components. A series of videotape sessions and student assessments (Appendix D) were analyzed. The primary goal of this dissertation was to explore the present status of the Cranmer abacus' use in teaching mathematics to students with visual impairments in the United States. The responses to the survey reveal that most teachers feel they are successfully teaching mathematics to visually impaired students with the abacus. The videotapes are further evidence that teachers are doing a good job, while not necessarily having an extensive mathematical background (teachers of the visually impaired are not required to take extra mathematics classes). The four teachers who participated in the videotape study achieved varying degrees of success. Three cases resulted in nice progress throughout the semester. The fourth teacher had two students, one of which enjoyed little success. Generally speaking, all four teachers taught the abacus diligently. Also, these teachers' responses to the survey questions were common amongst the forty-five teachers who participated in the survey. In reviewing both parts of this study, it is clear that teachers of the visually impaired are successfully incorporating the abacus into the curriculum for students with visual impairments. The only improvement that can be made is an increase in these teachers familiarity with mathematics education.

This ethnographic project used participant-observation and Life History Interviews to gather data on U.S. undergraduate students with learning disabilities (LD), including dyslexia and attention deficit disorders (ADD). The project focuses on issues concerning the political economy, personal and collective agency, social labeling theory, and medicalization. I argue that performance theory must be integrated with social labeling theory in order to provide a full consideration of context and agency. Information on prevalence and demographics, and on historical context is provided. This includes an overview of key American values and processes of medicalization, normalization, and militarization. The interrelationship between military actions and medical research on disabilities is foregrounded. A history of the development of the diagnostic categories and procedures and of commodification of LD is presented. The history of the Civil Rights movement for Americans with disabilities is reviewed, as are legal cases resulting from the implementation of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act. I describe framings and explanatory models of LD. These include media representations and other lay models; and medical, moral, and sociogenic models. I highlight the culturally constructed nature of LD. Medications and presumed biological origins of the disabilities are reviewed and critiqued. Diagnostic procedures (i.e., processes of gatekeeping and social labeling) and relevant tests (including IQ tests) are described and critiqued for each subcategory. I describe diagnosis by prescription in the case of ADD, referring specifically to Ritalin and Adderall. I examine students' personal understandings and framings of their diagnosed disabilities, and how these inform coping strategies and tactics. I incorporate performance theory and of "passing" as a form of identity management into this discussion. I describe the roles and expectations of professors, communications and negotiations between students and professors, and specific coping strategies and tactics of labeled students. I describe how they involve "education management groups" involving family, peers, professors, and service providers, to help them succeed. Sociolinguistics surrounding these disabilities are also explored.

The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the disclosure process for university students with learning disabilities. The study used qualitative and quantitative research methods to gather data and to measure the psychosocial development. A telephone survey, personal interviews, and The Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Inventory (SDTLI) were used. The participants included 148 university students with learning disabilities who were enrolled in a learning disabilities fee-based support program at a Research I University. The study found that the psychosocial development of students with learning disabilities did not differ significantly from the norming sample on the SDTLI, nor were there any significant differences between cohort status or gender of students with learning disabilities. The majority of students disclosed their learning disabilities to their instructors in order to use accommodations. Students with learning disabilities considered classroom climate, instructor characteristics, and peers in their decision making about disclosure. The results have implications for faculty, staff, and administrators because successful students seem to reframe their learning disability challenges into positive outcomes. Even students who tended to doubt their successes used reframing. Personnel and faculty members who have contact with students with learning disabilities need to understand that the students are capable and have typical psychosocial development.

The purpose of this study is to explore the nature of the relationships of several cognitive constructs with decoding, spelling and reading fluency in young students of different skill levels. Students in first and second grade were assessed in the areas of phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), visual processing speed, memory and semantic knowledge as well as decoding, spelling, and reading fluency. Students were assigned to three ability groups (low, average, or high) based on a cluster score composed of the three achievement variables. Correlations among all the variables were performed for the total and each subgroup. It was hypothesized that there would be significant differences in the correlational patterns between at least one of the ability groups and the total group. It was also hypothesized that there would be a different pattern of correlations between the ability subgroups. The third hypothesis was that a comparative review of the correlational patterns by group would provide insight into the nature of the developing literacy skills. In each case, the null was rejected. Significant findings indicated there were many more correlations in the low group than in the high group, indicating these constructs are necessary, but not sufficient, for acquiring literacy. The only correlation that was significant for the high group, but not the low group, was a measure of semantic knowledge, indicating vocabulary skills are related to students becoming early good readers. Other findings of interest include an inverse relation in the average group between spelling and two, but not three, of the timed constructs. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The purpose of this inquiry was to investigate the development, implementation, and sustainability of collaborative educational practices among special educators, general educators, and members of a university community. Defining characteristics of collaboration in schools, sustained practices, and a rubric developed from features of Vygotsky's (1978) zone of proximal development (ZPD), create an integrated framework that informs the study. The ultimate outcome goals of the study were to determine: (a) how collaboration functioned during the time of initial intensive support, (b) how collaboration was sustained after initial intensive supports were removed and (c) ways in which the ZPD informed and sustained collaboration throughout the study. A two-phase case study design was utilized for this study. In Phase I educators participated in a four-month long collaboration project with the goal of integrating students from a Kindergarten--1st grade bilingual cross-categorical special education classroom into a bilingual 1st grade classroom. During this period, the teachers, specialists, paraprofessionals, administrators, and university collaborators provided collaboration and support to one another. Phase II consisted of a three year follow-up period investigating the classroom, in which intensive formal support from the original collaborators was no longer directly provided Research methodology utilized for this study was qualitative. Data sources used to obtain information for the analyses included: Phase I, focus group interviews, teacher journal entries, observations, and teacher lesson plans; Phase II: follow-up interviews, classroom observations, and supporting documents. Analysis of the data revealed that during the implementation phase novice teachers were provided with a support network, there were cross-training opportunities for all participants, focus group interviews fostered participant collaboration, teacher resources were reallocated, and power differentials among participants were redistributed. Findings for the second phase of the study indicate that although collaboration was sustained after the initial four-month intervention for more than three years, it varied from the onset of the original intervention. Formal and informal partnerships among the participants sustained collaboration, especially those linking the university to the classroom. Based upon the ZPD rubric developed, there are implications for integrating sociocultural theory into future research studies that involve special and general educators and learners in culturally and linguistically diverse learning environments.