This study focuses on the early twentieth century role of private foundations in the development of standardized tests. Educators came to accept that the measurement of intelligence was important to teaching and schools. Because both standardized intelligence tests and standardized achievement

This dissertation attempts to trace the history of those aspects of American pedagogical theory that relate directly to the development of the environmental education movement. Environmental education has been described in the professional literature as a new approach to education about the environment. The most characteristic components of environmental education, as suggested by the literature are: interdisciplinary education, learner-centered education, experience-based learning, a rational approach to problem-solving, interdependence, ecology, the relationship between humans and the environment, human welfare and quality of life. Careful analysis of the literature suggests that these components are not new. Most of them were originally developed as the primary components of the theories of the early European educational reformers. Other components developed as the basis of the nature-study movement, the progressive education movement, the conservation education movement, and resource use education. The nature-study movement, reaching its peak between 1890 and 1920, was the first major American educational reform movement to fully attempt general educational reform through combining educational reform theory with the study of the environment. The nature-study movement provides a link between the early reformers and later reform movements in education. The importance of the role of the nature-study movement in the history of American educational reform has been overlooked by educational historians. Nature-study not only deserves a major place in the history of educational reform, but as an interdisciplinary, science-based, social and educational reform movement, it should be recognized as a prototype of environmental education. Contemporary education provides us with many challenges. It is valuable to develop a thorough understanding of the evolutionary links between the educational theories of the past and present efforts in environmental education. Such understanding might provide a better perspective with which to establish more effective goals, objectives, and methods for environmental education.

This study seeks to examine the interrelationships in Puerto Rico between the school system and the political and economic spheres from the beginning of Spanish colonization (1508) up through the first three decades of U.S. rule (1898-1930). For the analysis, a critical socio-historical approach is employed which focuses on the ways in which the power configurations which prevailed on the Island during that period, shaped and were shaped by the developments in insular schooling. It is proposed that one of the main advantages of such an approach is that it may provide a better understanding of the socio-historical factors that have limited or facilitated the development of spheres of personal autonomy and democratic interaction in the Puerto Rican society, including its school system. The study shows first that under both Spanish and U.S. rule, schooling was characterized by a changing but nevertheless class elitist, patriarchal and racist structure; by its indoctrinating role (mainly in securing loyalty for the colonizing State and its institutions); and by its vocational orientation (in training for the liberal professions as well as, under Spain, for the Church clergy, and under the U.S., for the colonial State, educational and capitalist bureaucracies). In addition, it shows that while schooling expanded slightly during the 19th century with the growth of the agro-export capitalist economy, the Spanish colonial apparatus and the creole liberal sectors, no significant school expansion occurred until the period of U.S. rule. It is argued, moreover, that the main impetus for school expansion came from the strong drive of U.S. authorities to "Americanize" the Islanders and socialize them into a new colonial order, partially liberal democratic in character, but increasingly centralized, bureaucratized and commercialized. It is also argued that this drive was reinforced by the rising demands for mass schooling by an increasingly proletarized and organized working class, as well as by the rising demands of a growing intelligentsia and a declining, U.S.-displaced, local agrobourgeoisie, for school expansion as a source both of elitist employment and training (in its secondary and university levels) for the liberal and technocratic professions.

This dissertation researches, documents and analyzes the history of the creation of the Federal Cabinet-level Department of Education from 1857 to 1979 when it became law under President Jimmy Carter. In addition it intensely studies the period of 1977-79 as the various branches of the Federal government moved towards the eventual enfranchisement of education as a fully-ranked Secretariat. It focuses on the Executive Branch of the Carter Presidency in its approach to creating a separate DOE, its relationship within the administration and outside it that affected the ebb and flow of opinion as the machinery of government worked its way. The documentation is inclusive of intense original research into the personal and private papers of the Carter administration particularly from the Carter Library archives located in Atlanta, Georgia. It is supplemented by related documentation and personal interviews with various administration leaders, interest groups, past and present Members of Congress, and published articles and editorials. This is not an isolated chronology of the success of a concept being transformed into law. It is commentary on the process of the making of Federal education legislation resultant from the actions of those involved within and outside traditional educational constituencies. It is the story of protection of territory by self-interest and self-service. It is in fact the making good on a political commitment by a President of the United States to a friendly interest group on a subject of priority and concern to him. It is educational reform in a democratic society. It is government by compromise. It is politics as the art of the possible with the creation of a separate Department of Education, more symbol than initially desired, but with the potential of a substantive future.

Most of the studies done on Dominican education emphasize current educational problems. There have been limited use of the country's educational history. This study focuses on the Dominican Republic's educational history in order to appraise the present and prescribe future solutions to pressing educational problems. In order to explain the present situation of education, in general, and the problem of illiteracy, in particular, an historical sequence of the most important events affecting education was covered. An historical framework was included to provide a better understanding of the nation's cultural diversity and how it impacted on the development of education in the country. The major educational problems affecting the Dominican Republic since the creation of its first Ministry of Education were explored in detail. After reviewing the history of education in the Dominican Republic and reviewing the present situation, one might conclude that the Dominican educational system has been condemned to failure. Migration to the United States has become an important aspect in Dominican life. The immigration impact in this nation's education is apparent, and its presence in the educational system in states like New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts is well felt. Therefore a study of the Dominicans in the educational system became a necessity. This dissertation addressed this topic in a limited way. The conclusions and recommendations are directed to educators in the Dominican Republic as well as in the United States, since it is known that more than 900,000 Dominicans are residing in the United States. Education in this country is compulsory; therefore, its educational system became an unwilling partner in the education of the present school-age Dominicans. This study will enhance the knowledge of educators in the Dominican Republic and challenge educators in the United States to address the needs of those students coming from a system of education that denied them the right to learn. Furthermore, it is the intent of this dissertation to become an important document in the development of initiatives to solve educational difficulties encountered by teachers, students, parents, and administrators in working out any obstacles created by this new wave of immigrants called Dominicans. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.)

In this century much has been written about the "search for a common learning" and whether or not the liberal tradition should be buried or can be revived. This dissertation shows that there are in fact two liberal traditions and our discussion of these issues have been confused by our failure to distinguish between the two. One liberal tradition is essentially educational in nature, inspired by the life of ancient Greece and formalized for centuries as the liberal arts. The second is essentially political in nature and stems from the thought of John Locke and the philosophes of the Enlightenment. The two traditions have been in conflict over the course of this country's history, the former attempting to preserve a traditional sense of liberal education and the latter serving to reshape the ideal of liberal education to fit the tenets of liberalism. The dissertation shows that the two traditions have become confused through the rise of liberalism and its success in shaping the structure of higher education and educational thought through the university movement in the last century and the progressive education movement in this century. The dissertation traces the history of both liberal traditions and shows how the tenets of liberalism have come to permeate present day discussions about liberal education. The world views of the ancient Greeks, Renaissance humanists, American Puritans, and American liberals are compared and contrasted, with a particular emphasis on the relationship between Puritanism and liberalism. The Puritans initiated and maintained their version of liberal education for over two-hundred years and it was this curious situation that made liberalism seem, in comparison, to represent the "true" vision of liberal education. Like the Puritans, liberals have reconstructed the concept of liberal education to suit their own purposes, and this reconstruction is examined. The dissertation concludes with suggestions to traditional humanists for reviving the humanist ideal of liberal education. The point is made that rather than concentrating upon plans for shared learning humanists must first recreate a common language with which to discuss liberal education and, to avoid confusion this language must be distinguished from that of liberalism.

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This study focuses on the careers of two photographers, Alfred Stieglitz (1864-1946) and Jacob A. Riis (1849-1914), and examines their work in terms of its educative intentions, content, and consequences. Stieglitz and Riis did not occupy traditional pedagogical roles in schools or universities, but nonetheless they assumed positions of influence and sought to inform and shape the values and actions of their contemporaries. They occupied formative positions within two traditions of photography which have evolved around their respective concerns: photography as a means of social analysis and criticism, and photography as a fine art. As a journalist and seminal figure in the social reform movement of the late 19th century in America, Riis was among the first photographers in this country to see the potential of the photograph as a direct means of social criticism. By documenting the tenement house conditions of New York City (primarily in the 1880's and early 1890's), Riis introduced his photographs into a broad campaign for urban reform. Responding to social tensions caused by urbanization and immigration, he used the dominant systems of communication and nonformal education to disseminate information, advocate tenement house improvements, and argue for a more humane approach to the problem of urban poverty. This study concentrates on Riis's career from the late 1880's to the early 1890's. During that period, he presented his photographs as lantern slides in a series of public lectures. These lectures subsequently became the content of a book in 1890, entitled How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York. As an artist, intellectual, and leader of avant-garde movements in art, Alfred Stieglitz responded to a less tangible problem and sought to teach a more elusive principle--an appreciation of contemporary art. Aware of the psychological and perceptual reorientation which the beginning of the twentieth century signaled, Stieglitz worked outside of the mainstream of popular culture and established his own alternative network for monitoring cultural changes, contributing to them, and conveying their meaning to an often less than appreciative public. Although Stieglitz worked on many fronts, this study concentrates on the years between 1890-1917 during which he founded the radical photographic group, the Photo-Secession, published the innovative quarterly Camera Work, and directed the controversial art gallery "291" which became increasingly devoted to displaying the work of the European and American avant-garde. The thesis of this study is that through their public activities and the nature of their photographic images, Riis and Steiglitz exerted a significant intellectual and ethical influence on their contemporaries and essentially functioned as teachers within the context of nonformal education. The work of both men is analyzed according to their primary messages, their strategies for conveying them, and the implications of their work. In addition to accounts of their projects, the study also traces the educational implications of the photographic images in America during the years leading up to the contributions of Riis and Stieglitz. The study concludes that Riis and Stieglitz exemplify not only two divergent attitudes toward photography but that they also reflect complementary attitudes toward knowledge and teaching. Riis insisted that his contemporaries become more politically engaged, assume responsibility for improving social conditions, and collaboratively work on solving problems in society. Whereas Riis insisted on a sustained and vigorous look outward, into social conditions, Stieglitz invited individuals to reflect more on the process of self-education, the development of individual judgment, insight, and means of self-expression.

This historical overview reflects on the various aspects of social development in Brazil. Literature, language, and education are traced and analyzed. It also encompasses other basic elements of the Brazilian nature: (a) Language which evolved from one people to another, and although they do not cross the frontiers of a state or the limits of language in which they were formed, they pass from one class or social group to another. It takes "distinct tonalities which fasten upon them and end by adhering to them, and which come either from the particular mentality of groups existing side-by-side within a given society, or from the genius of the people to whose language they have been transferred" (Azevedo, 1950, p. 3). (b) Civilization and culture, both introduced by scientists into a special vocabulary trying to give them a precise meaning, resist that effort with the wealth of ideas which they evoke and the variety of meanings which cling to them in common speech. Any process of abstraction which would separate the social and that human being would be dangerous. We cannot conceive man without culture (Azevedo, 1950). (c) The movement of educational reform and its effect in Brazil. (d) An analysis of Brazil's public school system. Teachers in public schools are confronted with many more students than can easily be handled, and with a lower level of education plus teacher training. Teaching features rote memorization, whatever the subject matter. Science and mathematics programs are poor, except for private facilities. There are inadequate laboratories and a shortage of laboratory equipment. There is a strong need for reforms in curriculum and instructional methods, according to administrators, teachers, and parents in interviews conducted by the researcher seeking solutions for a bankrupt public school system. A careful analysis is followed by specific recommendations.

No description available.