Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A major factor affecting higher education world wide and in particular in Namibia is a trend towards massification. Within Namibia this trend is due to an increase in population, an increased demand for skilled human resources and an increase in political power of the formerly disadvantaged communities. This resulted in a rising demand that the government of Namibia provide access to higher education for increasing numbers of young people. The Polytechnic of Namibia (PaN) has therefore opted for distance education as a means of providing flexible and cost-effective education to the people of Namibia. The term "distance education" is currently accepted internationally to describe a whole range of educational activities in which teaching and learning take place without the students and the educators being together for all, or even most of the time. This is made possible by the use of communication media in the form of print, broadcasts, audio and video recordings, telephones or computers and often a combination of several of these, usually in conjunction with occasional face-taface contact between students and educators or between fellow students. These common characteristics are the result of the convergence of various traditlena and a variety of political, economic, social, educational and technological developments in different countries at different times. Managing distance education is a complex undertaking. In addition, educators have so far only had limited experience of managing distance education, because it has such a short history. This situation is further complicated by the fact that such diverse media are used, each with its own peculiar characteristics and that the scale of operation is often larger than in conventional education institutions. For the purpose of this dissertation distance education institutions were divided into four types, namely, dedicated distance education institutions, departments of existing conventional education institutions, consortia and hybrids. Furthermore, the internal organisation and management issues related to the management and administration of distance education were explored and certain criteria were identified to develop a normative model of distance education management for a mixed or dual mode institution like the PaN. The current distance education management model at the PaN was evaluated in terms of the normative management model identified. An evaluation was undertaken to identify the shortcomings and to make certain recommendations to overcome these shortcomings. A new distance education management model was also proposed. The aim of this distance education management model is to ensure that a suitable division of labour is created to fulfill the required distance education activities, and to ensure that all distance education activities are properly co-ordinated within the PaN and that the Centre for Open and Lifelong learning (COll) which is responsible for the managing of all distance education .. activities at the PaN gets the support it needs to carry out its task. The writer believes that distance education will increasingly be an essential factor in making education accessible at all levels, in all forms, to all people at every stage of their life. New technology is increasingly making this possible. Due to the fact that distance education will become of vital importance in the twenty first century, distance education practitioners and planners need to be more flexible and open-minded about distance education's appropriate role and usage. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: 'n Belangrike faktor wat hoër onderwys dwarsoor die wêreld en veral in Namibië beïnvloed, is 'n neiging tot massifikasie. Binne Namibië kan hierdie neiging toegeskryf word aan 'n toename in bevolking, in die vraag na opgeleide menslike hulpbronne en in politieke mag by die voormalige agtergeblewe gemeenskappe. Dit het uitgeloop op groter eise dat die regering van Namibië toegang tot hoër onderwys moet verskaf vir 'n groeiende getal jongmense. Die PoN het dus besluit op afstandsonderrig as 'n manier om buigbare en koste-effektiewe onderrig aan die mense van Namibië te voorsien. Die term "afstandsonderrig" word tans internasionaal aanvaar as die beskrywing van 'n hele reeks onderwysaktiwiteite waartydens onderrig en leer plaasvind sonder dat die studente en die opvoeders voortdurend of selfs vir die meeste van die tyd bymekaar is. Dit word moontlik gemaak deur die gebruik van kommunikasiemedia in die vorm van drukwerk, uitsendings, oudio- en beeldopnames, telefone of rekenaars, en dikwels 'n kombinasie van 'n aantal hiervan, gewoonlik gepaard met toevallige persoonlike kontak tussen studente en opvoeders of tussen mede-studente. Hierdie gemeenskaplike eienskappe is die resultaat van 'n sameloop van verskeie tradisies, asook 'n verskeidenheid van politieke, ekonomiese, sosiale, opvoedkundige en tegnologiese ontwikkelings in verskillende lande op verskillende tye. Om afstandsonderrig te bestuur is 'n ingewikkelde onderneming. Hierbenewens het opvoedkundiges tot dusver slegs beperkte ondervinding opgedoen ten opsigte van die bestuur van afstandsonderrig, omdat dit so 'n kort geskiedenis het. Hierdie situasie word verder gekompliseer deur die feit dat 'n verskeidenheid van media gebruik word, elkeen met sy eiesoortige eienskappe, en dat die skaal waarop hierdie soort onderrig onderneem moet word dikwels groter is as in konvensionele opvoedingsinrigtings. Vir die doel van hierdie proefskrif is afstandsonderriginrigtings in vier tipes verdeel, naamlik, afstandsonderwysinrigtings wat geen ander doel het nie, departemente in bestaande konvensionele opvoedkundige inrigtings, konsortia en 'n samestelling van twee of meer van hierdie drie. Hierbenewens is die interne organisasie en bestuursvraagstukke verwant aan die bestuur en administrasie van afstandsonderrig ondersoek en sekere kriteria is geïdentifiseer om 'n normatiewe model van afstandsonderrigbestuur te ontwikkel vir 'n gemengde of dubbelganginrigting soos die PoN. Die afstandsonderrig-bestuursmodel wat tans aan die PoN gebruik word, is geevalueer ten opsigte van die normatiewe bestuursmodel wat geïdentifiseer is. 'n Evaluasie is gedoen om die tekortkominge te identifiseer en om sekere aanbevelings te doen om hierdie tekortkominge aan te spreek. 'n Nuwe afstandsonderrig-bestuursmodel word ook voorgestel. Die doel van hierdie afstandsonderrig-bestuursmodel is om te verseker dat 'n geskikte arbeidsverdeling geskep word sodat die nodige afstandsonderrig aktiwiteite doeltreffend binne die PoN gekoordineer word, en dat die Sentrum vir Ope- en Lewenslange Leer, wat verantwoordelik is vir die bestuur van alle afstandsonderrig aktiwiteite aan die PoN die nodige steun kry om sy taak uit te voer. Die skrywer glo dat afstandsonderrig toenemend noodsaaklik sal wees om onderwys toegangklik te maak op alle vlakke, in alle vorme, aan alle mense in elke stadium van hulle lewens. Nuwe tegnologie maak dit toenemend moontlik. Aangesien afstandsonderrig 'n noodsaaklike rolspeler sal word in die een en twintigste eeu, sal die beoefenaars en beplanners hiervan toenemend buigbaar en oop van gemoed moet wees ten opsigte van afstandsonderrig se toepaslike rol en toepassing in die samelewing.

This study was carried out to investigate how education about, in/through and for the environment is incorporated in the Namibian Geography Junior Phase curriculum in three schools in Oshana Education Region. Education about, in/through and for the environment are three forms of environmental education identified by Fien (1998). This study is a qualitative, interpretive case study. It reviews the activities, content knowledge, methods, competencies and resources and describes how they were used by teachers in fostering education about, in/through and for the environment in the curriculum. Data was generated through document analysis, observations and semi-structured interviews. The results were interpreted and discussed in relation to the research question which is: How is education about, in/through and for the environment incorporated in the Geography Junior Phase curriculum? Key findings of the study suggested that teachers incorporated education about, in/through and for the environment in their teaching. Teachers used the prescribed syllabus to structure their environmental learning lessons. Most methods, resources and activities used by the teachers promoted education about the environment. The study also found that most types of knowledge about the environment were covered by the teachers. This enabled learners to examine the complexity and interrelatedness of natural systems. The study found that the way the resources were used exclusively supported education about the environment. Linking learning to local context in this study encouraged education in/through the environment and enhanced the learning process through real life experience. The study also found that, although teachers taught their learners for the environment, they did not empower them in taking actions towards environmental problems. Based on the insights offered by this research, the study identified further support required by teachers and made recommendations for effective incorporation of about, in/through andfor the environment in the curriculum.

The study aimed to investigate the educationally-related challenges faced by teenage mothers in coming back to school in two senior schools in the Kavango Education Region. This small-scale study focused on the challenges that influence or affect the academic progress and development of these learners. The study looked at how teenage pregnancy is perceived as a social problem in many countries as well as in Namibia and examined its impact on the educational aspirations of the young mothers. Namibia has a policy in place to cater for the continued education of learners returning to school after the birth of their babies. This policy was analysed and its implementation in the selected schools formed part of the study, The findings revealed that the educational challenges faced by these young women range from social exclusion to the need to manage the dual responsibilities of motherhood and study. The way in which the learners who participated in this study are viewed by their peers and their teachers was found to be influenced by the cultural connotations ascribed to women as soon as they become mothers, a factor that adds to the challenges these learners face when returning to schools. Cultural connotations which perceived a mother as an adult in the society was attached to the change of the behaviours and attitudes of school young mothers. The findings also showed that while these learners tended to be withdrawn in class and were generally unable to participate in extra-mural activities, they none the less were able to compete with their peers in terms of their academic performance. The study revealed that there is no shared understanding of the policy among the participants and that it is not effectively implemented in the schools, nor is it uniformly applied.

This study is about Continuous Assessment (CA) in teaching and learning, a new concept and approach in independent Namibia. The country's education system was reformed shortly after independence in 1990 to fulfill the intention for Education for All. The Namibian education system then moved from a behaviorist to constructivist philosophy of education. The move made from one philosophy to another resulted in many changes in teaching and learning including changes in assessment in education. CA is born out of a constructivist philosophy. It is believed to facilitate learning with understanding. In this study I explored the understanding of Oshikwanyama teachers and their practice of CA in teaching and learning. Interviews, classroom observations and document analysis were used. The research focused on 10 participants in the Ohangwena and Oshana regions. The participants ranged from a Head of Department to members of the curriculum panel, subject advisors and Oshikwanyama subject facilitators as well as teachers at the classroom level. It was revealed that generally speaking, CA as a term is understood, but the practice is not well implemented. In the practice of CA, instead of learners being assessed for further learning, the emphasis is on scored marks without further assistance in learning. Further, the collection of marks during CA is often seen as largely for the purpose of contributing to the marks for summative final marks. Informal assessment which is part of CA was not given attention, which is a key factor preventing the effective use of CA in teaching and learning. Methods such as marking grids that are provided in the syllabus, as well as portfolios and learners' profiles, were not mentioned in the interviews nor observed as being in use. Participants in the study did acknowledge that they did not fully understand how best to implement CA. Overall, the evidence pointed to a conclusion that the identified shortcomings in the implementation of formative assessment is limiting the realization of the rich potential for CA as a day-to-day tool to facilitate learning for understanding in the observed classes.

In the context of ecological crisis and environmental deterioration, teaching about environmental issues and the preservation of the world’s environment has become increasingly important across the globe (Chi-chung Ko & Chi-kin Lee, 2003). Of the various subjects taught in secondary schools, Science is often perceived as one that can make a significant contribution to environmental education. It is in this light that the study has looked at how Grade 11 and 12 Biology teachers in the Namibian context implement Environmental Learning (EL). This study was constituted as a case study of two schools in Windhoek, in the Khomas region. The study investigated the implementation of EL in the Biology curriculum focusing on the constraints and enabling factors influencing the implementation. This study employed qualitative methods, specifically semi-structured interviews, classroom observations and document analysis in its investigation of EL implementation. Purposive sampling was done and piloting of interview and observation schedules was used to refine the schedules. Ethical issues were taken into consideration throughout the study. The key findings from the study are as follows: - Teachers’ knowledge and interest in environmental education influence how teachers facilitate EL; - There is a mismatch between EL theories and practice; - Teaching of EL is mainly informed by the syllabus and not other curriculum documents, - Current assessment policy and practice impact on EL; and - Possibilities exist for improving EL in Namibia’s Biology curriculum. These key findings have been used to make recommendations for the study which are as follows: - Strengthen the subject content and interest of teachers; - There should be a match between EL theories and practice; - Reorient curriculum documents and other learning support materials used for EL; - Change in assessment approaches; and - Translate constraints of EL into enablers. The study concludes by calling for further research into EL pedagogies. This can be used to improve EL implementation in the region where the study was situated.

Most schools that serve learners who come from disadvantaged areas and backgrounds face unusually difficult challenges. These schools experience poor performance and disciplinary problems, and teachers lack motivation and commitment. This study explores the role of leadership and management in the schooling of at-risk learners at Pandu Primary School. This school accommodates learners mostly from Hafo, a township characterised by poverty with a high crime rate. However, in spite of these factors school inspectors and advisory teachers perceive the school to be successful. The school uses an abundance of energy and unusually high levels of human effort in a very focused way to improve the teaching and learning standard. The study found the co-existence of apparently conflicting management and leadership approaches in managing and leading the school. Strict control used in the school to make teachers work hard is an element of classical organisational theory, with its emphasis on span of control or number of workers supervised. Policies with strict rules are in place to create a calm atmosphere and serve as directives for teachers and learners. On the other hand, constructivist approaches – such as instructional leadership, transformational leadership, collegial model of management and open systems – are also clearly evident in the findings. Instructional leadership is evident in the emphasis on improvement of classroom practice. Elements of transformational leadership are seen in that the principal motivates the teachers and serves as a role model. The school also has some features of the collegial model of management, and can be described as an open system. Thus, by drawing on management and leadership approaches informed by different traditions and philosophies, the school succeeds against severe odds.

After the introduction of the Basic Education Teacher Diploma (BETD) in Namibia, a number of studies were conducted on how teachers, lecturers, stakeholders and the Namibian public perceived the BETD program and its implementation. However, very few studies focussed specifically on mathematics subject content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in the BETD. The purpose of this study was to investigate the need for a complementary course in mathematics education to address the lack of mathematical content and pedagogical knowledge in the Namibian BETD. The study involved five mathematics school teachers, two mathematics college lecturers in the Kavango educational region and a professor of mathematics education at the University of Namibia. These participants were purposefully selected because of their knowledge and experiences with various aspects of the BETD program. The motivation for conducting this study was to gain a better understanding of some of the issues that have been raised about the BETD program, particularly the perceived inadequacy of mathematical subject content and methodology since the inception of the program. The study adopts a qualitative approach in reporting participants’ reflections. The views of the focal educators and documents such as syllabi and course outlines were the main source of data. The findings indicate that despite the training that the three BETD mathematics graduates in this study received, the level of mathematics taught in a complementary course, such as an ACE, would clearly better equip mathematics teachers to teach proficiently and facilitate access to institutions of higher learning such as universities. The results of the study revealed that there was a need for the implementation of a complementary course to the BETD in mathematics education for teachers of mathematics in Namibia. This study also provided valuable insights into what such a course could look like.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the purpose and role portfolios are playing in developing reflective practice in student teachers and to assess the degree to which this role is being achieved in practice. This study was a interpretive small scale case study. The target groups were 3 student teachers in their final year of study, 3 teacher educators and the vice-rector of the college. Data were obtained through interviews and document analysis. The findings indicated that the students had no meaningful orientation to both the role of portfolio development and reflective skills. The sources of this were the lack of common understanding among teacher educators, lack of support for both teacher educators and student teachers and lack of time, lack of guidelines for construction and clear assessment rubric. The results of this study indicated that the teacher educators were in need of vigorous professional development and considerable implementation strategies are needed to develop the desired reflective skills.

This study focuses on the implementation of a thematic approach in the Namibian Lower Primary Phase of schooling. The purpose of the study is to investigate teachers’ perceptions and understanding of the thematic approach and also to explore how teachers plan and implement a thematic approach in their classrooms. It is argued that a thematic approach allows for a combination of subjects that integrate content across the curriculum in such a way that learners can see the relations among concepts and so build up their knowledge in a more meaningful way. The work was done in a qualitative paradigm using a case study approach. Findings reveal that the majority of teachers have a shallow conceptual understanding of the principles of a thematic approach and this causes difficulties in their practice. The investigation concludes that in order for teachers to deepen their conceptual understanding of the thematic approach, follow-up workshops are necessary to help them develop appropriate strategies for their classrooms.

Since the Namibian independence in 1990, the education system has undergone some major revamping which involved the adoption of social constructivist perspectives in the teaching and learning of sciences. This learning theory acknowledges learners’ background prior knowledge as valuable tools in the effective construction of science concepts during lessons. A corollary is that the socio-cultural circumstances of learners might negatively influence the way learners construct new knowledge in the science classroom if they are not taken into consideration. This study was thus prompted by the need to understand how trainee science teachers engage with prior everyday knowledge and experiences, so as to enhance the conceptual development of biological concepts. The study was qualitative and it was underpinned by an interpretive paradigm with some elements of action research. Science trainee teachers at Katima Mulilo, Unam Campus were used as research participants. The techniques used to gather data included document analysis, brainstorming, observation, audio-visual, microteaching and semi-structured interviews. The results of this study showed that the changes that occurred during microteaching practices of the four trainee teachers involved in the study reflected their professional development in this approach. However, it emerged that prior everyday knowledge can be both a barrier and enabler to the construction of meaningful teaching and learning; hence its oversight may lead to instructional failures. The findings also indicated that selected platforms are essential to enable trainee teachers to incorporate prior everyday knowledge and experiences into the teaching of Western science. However, larger scale study should be conducted in order to deepen the understanding of the topic.