This study investigated costs of inclusive special education. Specifically, there were three areas of study: a) changes in special education costs in eight school divisions before and after implementing an inclusive special education program (Group A); b) changes in special education costs in two school divisions, one inclusive and one not, when using a more precise calculation (Larson method) of special education costs (Group B); and c) a comparison of total special education costs for all school divisions in the state (where data were reported) before and after a state project to encourage inclusive special education (Group C). All calculations compared 1987-88 costs (pre-inclusion) to 1990-91 costs (post-inclusion), after adjusting 1987-88 costs to 1990-91 values. The study found that in the eight inclusive school divisions, six of the eight reduced the percentage of special education costs when compared to total costs. When looking at reported per pupil costs, only two of these eight divisions reported the cost of elementary special education at a lower level after inclusion. For secondary education, two different divisions of the eight reported the special education costs at a lower level after inclusion. None of the eight reported reduction in both secondary and elementary; half reported no reduction in either level after inclusion. The case study data found that the inclusive school division had an increase in special education costs, while the non-inclusive school division had a reduction in special education costs during the same time period. Recalculation using the Larson method showed that special education costs were approximately one and one-half times those reported by standard reporting procedures. The study also produced a more accurate method for determining regular education costs for special education students by calculating time special education students spent in regular education, using individual student data to determine the percent of time reported in special education. In all school divisions in Virginia reporting data, the study found a reduction of special education expenditures occurred during the three-year period, while the enrollment of special education increased during the same period of time. / Ed. D.

Ph. D.

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which fiscal equity has been advanced, if any, for the Commonwealth of Virginia since the current state aid funding system was implemented for the 1974-75 school year. This purpose was accomplished by examining three years of data to investigate whether any significant progress had been made toward a more equitable distribution of state and local revenues. Fiscal equity was defined in terms of two criteria: Per-Pupil Revenue Disparity and Fiscal Effort Neutrality. In addition, the standard of Fiscal Capacity Variance was used. Eight fiscal equity measures were applied to the data for the school years 1973-74, 1974-75 and 1980-81 to address the different discal equity criteria. The criterion of Per-Pupil revenue Disparity examined the variance in per-pupil revenue dispersion among the school divisions. The coefficient of variation, McLoone Index, Federal Range Ration and Gini Index were the fiscal equity measures used to address this criterion. Findings indicate that revenue disparities per pupil increased during the era of reform legislation in Virginia. The movement away from fiscal equity in terms of per-pupil revenue disparities, as shown by three of the four discal equity measures, other ancillary data, and comparison with similar state studies, demonstrates that if the intent of the Virginia school finance reform was to provide greater fiscal equity, it was not successful. The criterion of Fiscal Effort Neutrality was used to determine whether the pupils in the lowest discal capacity school division were given the same opportunity for identical per-pupil revenues for an equal amount of fiscal effort as the pupils in the highest fiscal capacity school division. The Federal Wealth Neutrality Standard was used to satisfy this criterion. Overall, the analysis indicates that fiscal equity as measured by the Federal Wealth Neutrality Test remained relatively constant over the three years. Virginia’s 68 percent of wealth neutral funds is considerably short of the required 85 percent to pass the test. The Fiscal Capacity Variance standard assessed whether a relationship existed between per-pupil revenues and school division fiscal capacity and wealth. Correlations, Elasticity coefficients, and a modified Gini Index were used to examine the relationship. Findings indicate that the link between per-pupil revenues and wealth has decreased marginally since enactment of the new funding formula. Yet the relationship between per-pupil revenues and fiscal capacity has increased, indicating movement away from the goal of fiscal equity. / Ph. D.

Ed. D.

This study used time series analysis of 21 years (1970- 1990) of school productivity data from Virginia to demonstrate the usefulness of time series models in describing variations in school input (primarily expenditures) and output (primarily student attainment and achievement) variables. In the study, a series of trend-removed, ARIMA(1,0,0) autoregressive time series models for school input variables were developed to describe long-term trends in school expenditures, instructional salaries and pupil/teacher ratios and to account for year to year variation in levels of school inputs. Residuals from these models for school inputs were correlated with student attainment scores and achievement score residuals with student ability removed to identify those school productivity inputs having the strongest association with school outputs. The scores of input variables having strong associations with school outputs were then plotted over the 1970-90 time period and descriptively related to historical records of legislative and administrative policy decisions thought to have had statewide effects on school productivity in Virginia. The association of school productivity relationship changes with actual policy events was then described. All school input variables could be described with time series accounting for 90+% of the year to year variance in inputs. Time series residuals from expenditures, instructional salaries and pupil/teacher ratio inputs were moderately to strongly associated with two output measures: 1) the percent of Virginia school graduates attending college; and 2) the percent of dropouts, in most Virginia (30 < N < 100) school districts. These inputs shared 20 to 40% of their variance in common with school attainment outputs. School input residuals for local expenditures and pupil/teacher ratio were also strongly associated with reading, math, and language arts achievement residuals in a small number (N=2- 31) of Virginia school districts. Stronger relationships between inputs and achievement scores in greater numbers of Virginia school districts may be revealed when more years of data are available for future analysis. Plots of significant school input variables concurrently with school outputs and historical policy change events suggested that at least three policy change events may have had positive long term effects on school productivity in Virginia from 1970-90. Legislative commitment to a reduction in pupil/teacher ratio in the early 1980's seems to be associated with a long term decrease in dropout rates and increases in college attendance among students in most Virginia school districts. Commitment to higher teacher salaries in the same time period also seems to be associated with positive changes in college attendance and reductions in dropout rates. Finally, the long term expansion of total educational expenditures in Virginia, primarily through adoption of special education, health education, and dropout prevention curriculum initiatives, seems to be associated with rising levels of student promotion rates, percent of ninth grade students graduating and percent of students attending college from 1970-90. / Ph. D.

This is a study designed to determine whether the 1988-89 method of distributing state pupil transportation funds in Virginia met generally accepted standards of quality for such distribution methods, and whether the method of distributing pupil transportation funds served to enhance fiscal equalization in Virginia by properly taking into account cost factors that vary among the Commonwealth1s local school districts? Relevant literature was examined to identify generally accepted standards of quality for pupil transportation funding formulae and to identify cost factors that are generally accepted as exerting an influence on the costs of operating a local pupil transportation program. Second, information and data were gathered to provide measurements of generally accepted evaluative criteria and generally accepted cost factors that had previously been identified. It was concluded that the Virginia pupil transportation funding formula, as proposed by the Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission and adopted by the General Assembly, meets generally accepted standards for efficiency, objectivity, and reliability, but fails to meet standards for simplicity and equity. It was also concluded that the Virginia pupil transportation funding formula does not enhance fiscal equalization through proper consideration of cost factors that vary among local school districts in Virginia. Five recommendations were offered. First, the current Matrix System method of recognizing costs for purposes of state pupil transportation fund distribution should be replaced by one of three formulae developed through the study, all three of which are substantially more accurate than the Matrix System in approximating existing costs. Second, an effort should be made to provide a comprehensive but understandable description of the method of state pupil transportation fund distribution in Virginia. Third, the methods used in the body of the study should be duplicated by a state agency with ready access to accurate and current data pertaining to pupil transportation costs and cost factors in Virginia. Fourth, the Pupil Transportation Division of the Virginia Department of Education should be more directly involved in the administration of state pupil transportation funds. And fifth, the practice of basing current pupil transportation fund distribution on data more than one year old should be discontinued. / Ed. D.