This study compares the development of the role of the federal government in education in Canada and the United States during the period 1867 to 1970. It identifies the nature of federal participation in the field in both countries during the period, and through comparison, the similarities and differences existent between the two federal systems in terms of the federal educational role. The study gives a useful and needed perspective on federal involvement in education during a time when domestic conditions in both countries prompted the development of a stronger federal educational presence. The works of three scholars contributed to the conceptual development of the study. Brian Holmes suggestions on the use of the problem approach in comparative education provided an analytical framework for the comparative aspects of the inquiry, while the descriptive works of J.C. Miller and C.A. Quattlebaum on the federal role in Canada and the United States respectively, furnished useful suggestions for the organizational approach adopted. The information and data required for the study was obtained from a variety of sources. Primary source material was obtained from federal legislation, regulations, and reports of the various federal departments and agencies in both countries. In addition, special reports and monographs were utilized to gain more detailed information on specific aspects of various federal education programs. These sources were supplemented by secondary material dealing with the economic, social, and political background to the evolving federal role in the field, particularly insofar as the nature and evolution of both federal systems was concerned. In this study, education is defined as a formal process where instruction is given and/or learning takes place within the confines or under the jurisdiction of a recognized educational institution. Within this definition the material is presented in accordance with two major classifications of federal educational activity, those programs developed under federal constitutional obligations and those developed in areas normally outside of federal jurisdiction. For convenience, the latter programs are treated under three categories, elementary/secondary, post secondary, and vocational/professional education. Three important postulates are advanced through this inquiry. Dealing with both federal systems, the study suggests that by 1970, the federal educational presence was such that a "third partner" had emerged in the conduct of education in both countries, alongside the traditional state/ provincial and municipal/county governments. At the same time the study suggests that the nature of the federal educational presence in both countries was quite different though often prompted by similar conditions. In terms of the federal educational presence in areas under federal jurisdiction, the study suggests that the Canadian government tended to adopt a paternalistic approach towards such educational programs. The American government tended to encourage the development of self-sustaining programs and was accordingly less paternalistic in approach. At the same time, it is demonstrated that in both countries federal recognition, development, and implementation of educational programs under this classification was a slow and often reluctant process. Where federal educational programs overlapped with those of other levels of government, there were also marked differences in the approaches taken in both countries. The study demonstrates that for constitutional, political, and other reasons, the Canadian government was often forced to provide indirect and/or general assistance to education. For similar reasons the American government was forced to provide more direct and categorical aid. As a result of the differing nature of federal educational involvement in both countries the administration of federal educational programs also differed. This study points out, however, that despite these differences, there exists a critical deficiency in Canada, where despite the significant nature of the federal educational presence, by 1970 no formal mechanism existed for the effective coordination of the federal effort. Similarities and differences aside, the study establishes the complex yet significant nature of the federal educational presence in both countries. It suggests that there is a place for a federal government in the field within a federal system. It also provides a needed foundation for further research in the field and an hypothesis for a future inquiry into the federal educational role in other federal systems. / Education, Faculty of / Graduate

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In the last few decades, the growth of administration costs on higher education campuses surpassed the growth of instructional costs. The escalating costs of higher education, which are now outpacing general price levels, have raised concern for policy-makers who are challenged to increase access and make higher education affordable but are constrained by budgets. The recent recession, with wide-spread effect on economy, provided the opportunity to examine cost patterns on higher education during the recession. This research explored different revenue, costs, staff composition, and state-level factors that might be associated with administration costs, and compared these to the association of the same independent variables on instructional costs for three types of public four year institutions. This research examined the changes in costs during the last recession. Panel data of a cohort of public institutions with non-missing values over a 23 year period of 1988 to 2010 were analyzed within fixed effect regression models. Revenue factors were shown to have positive relationships with administration costs, and other factors had mixed associations. While descriptive trend analysis showed a decrease in administration costs in the short-run, regression analysis incorporating 23 years of data did not show such decline from a long-term perspective. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2015. / September 8, 2015. / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert Schwartz, Professor Directing Dissertation; Diana Rice, University Representative; Shouping Hu, Committee Member; David Tandberg, Committee Member.

Akademi Komunitas is a policy borrowing or policy transfer in Indonesian higher education system from the U.S. community college system. This policy officially started in 2012 under the Indonesian Law No.12/2012 on Higher Education with the objectives to expand access to higher education and to provide vocational education that will equip the students with skills and knowledge required by the global market demand. As a new higher education institution, what Akademi Komunitas is about and how it should be managed was not fully understood by the administrators. Fortunately, the U.S Department of State offered a Community College Administrators Program (CCAP) in 2014 and in 2015 to the Akademi Komunitas administrators to observe and learn about the American community college in the United States for the development of Akademi Komunitas in Indonesia. The purpose of this study was then to examine the perceptions of key Indonesian Akademi Komunitas administrators regarding the transferability or applicability of the features in the American community college model to the Indonesian context and to understand the likely challenges to transferring or applying those features of the US model for the development of the Akademi Komunitas. The subjects of this study were the Akademi Komunitas administrators joining the Community College Administrator Program (CCAP) in 2014 and 2015. The data were primarily collected through semi-structured interviews which were done in the U.S. at the end of the CCAP in 2015 and in Indonesia during the site-visit to Akademi Komunitas in 2016. Focus group discussion was also utilized for additional information on certain topics where the participants might have had different opinions or perceptions. The findings suggest that based on the perceptions of the Akademi Komunitas administrators, features like open access, articulation agreements, curriculum development, student support services, online learning, and partnerships were the transferable features of the American community college model, while dual enrollment and boards of trustees were the non-transferable features. However, the transferable features of the American community colleges as perceived by the administrators should be interpreted as the desirable features as they were not yet transferred or implemented by the administrators in their own Akademi Komunitas. It was because Akademi Komunitas did not start as an autonomous or independent institution and therefore had no authority to make a change to a policy or program. In addition, the centralization system in higher education institution suggested a top-down process or a bureaucracy which does not allow the people at Akademi Komunitas to do things without consent from the people at the Directorate of Higher Education. The transfer or the implementation of those features was not up to the administrators of Akademi Komunitas but they had to wait for instructions from the top management for what can or cannot be done. The administrators’ perception of constraints in the implementation of the transferable features in their own Akademi Komunitas were things such as the unautonomous status of Akademi Komunitas at early stage, the limited infrastructure of Akademi Komunitas, the very limited number of permanent teaching staff in Akademi Komunitas, the unequal resources of districts where Akademi Komunitas was established, and the centralization of higher education system. The results of this study confirmed the literature on policy borrowing or policy transfer on the importance of context for policy adoption and adaptation (Phillips and Ochs, 2004; Steiner- Khamsi, 2014). The “yes . . . but . . .” phenomenon as found in the participants’ responses (Akademi Komunitas administrators) to the questions about the transferable features of the U.S. community colleges to Akademi Komunitas suggested that those transferable features in the administrators’ perception were actually desirable features which were not yet transferred or implemented in their own Akademi Komunitas because of the constraints in the political and economic contexts. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2018. / April 16, 2018. / Akademi Komunitas, Community college, Equity and equality, Higher education access, Policy borrowing, Vocational education / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey Ayala Milligan, Professor Directing Dissertation; Aubteen Darabi, University Representative; Robert Schwartz, Committee Member; Helen Boyle, Committee Member.

Akademi Komunitas is a policy borrowing or policy transfer in Indonesian higher education system from the U.S. community college system. This policy officially started in 2012 under the Indonesian Law No.12/2012 on Higher Education with the objectives to expand access to higher education and to provide vocational education that will equip the students with skills and knowledge required by the global market demand. As a new higher education institution, what Akademi Komunitas is about and how it should be managed was not fully understood by the administrators. Fortunately, the U.S Department of State offered a Community College Administrators Program (CCAP) in 2014 and in 2015 to the Akademi Komunitas administrators to observe and learn about the American community college in the United States for the development of Akademi Komunitas in Indonesia. The purpose of this study was then to examine the perceptions of key Indonesian Akademi Komunitas administrators regarding the transferability or applicability of the features in the American community college model to the Indonesian context and to understand the likely challenges to transferring or applying those features of the US model for the development of the Akademi Komunitas. The subjects of this study were the Akademi Komunitas administrators joining the Community College Administrator Program (CCAP) in 2014 and 2015. The data were primarily collected through semi-structured interviews which were done in the U.S. at the end of the CCAP in 2015 and in Indonesia during the site-visit to Akademi Komunitas in 2016. Focus group discussion was also utilized for additional information on certain topics where the participants might have had different opinions or perceptions. The findings suggest that based on the perceptions of the Akademi Komunitas administrators, features like open access, articulation agreements, curriculum development, student support services, online learning, and partnerships were the transferable features of the American community college model, while dual enrollment and boards of trustees were the non-transferable features. However, the transferable features of the American community colleges as perceived by the administrators should be interpreted as the desirable features as they were not yet transferred or implemented by the administrators in their own Akademi Komunitas. It was because Akademi Komunitas did not start as an autonomous or independent institution and therefore had no authority to make a change to a policy or program. In addition, the centralization system in higher education institution suggested a top-down process or a bureaucracy which does not allow the people at Akademi Komunitas to do things without consent from the people at the Directorate of Higher Education. The transfer or the implementation of those features was not up to the administrators of Akademi Komunitas but they had to wait for instructions from the top management for what can or cannot be done. The administrators’ perception of constraints in the implementation of the transferable features in their own Akademi Komunitas were things such as the unautonomous status of Akademi Komunitas at early stage, the limited infrastructure of Akademi Komunitas, the very limited number of permanent teaching staff in Akademi Komunitas, the unequal resources of districts where Akademi Komunitas was established, and the centralization of higher education system. The results of this study confirmed the literature on policy borrowing or policy transfer on the importance of context for policy adoption and adaptation (Phillips and Ochs, 2004; Steiner- Khamsi, 2014). The “yes . . . but . . .” phenomenon as found in the participants’ responses (Akademi Komunitas administrators) to the questions about the transferable features of the U.S. community colleges to Akademi Komunitas suggested that those transferable features in the administrators’ perception were actually desirable features which were not yet transferred or implemented in their own Akademi Komunitas because of the constraints in the political and economic contexts. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2018. / April 16, 2018. / Akademi Komunitas, Community college, Equity and equality, Higher education access, Policy borrowing, Vocational education / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey Ayala Milligan, Professor Directing Dissertation; Aubteen Darabi, University Representative; Robert Schwartz, Committee Member; Helen Boyle, Committee Member.

Participation in study abroad has tripled in the last two decades, with over 332,000 U.S. undergraduate students studying overseas for academic credit in the 2016/2017 school year (Institute of International Education, 2018). Programs aimed at freshman students are a popular new trend in education abroad. As freshman program offerings increase, so does the urgency to assess the merits and effectiveness of these programs. Existing literature illustrates benefits of the study abroad experience in general, but provides little insight on outcomes for freshman students participating in first-year programs. Through a mixed methods approach, this study seeks to investigate academic and intercultural communication program outcomes of a full, first-year study abroad experience for a single freshman cohort. This study will provide institutional stakeholders their first outcomes assessment of a new and increasingly popular type of educational program. Additionally, the study will inform the field of study abroad through a descriptive analysis of participant data and their perceptions. The results have the potential to serve as a foundation for future research and the development of best practices. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. / Spring Semester 2019. / April 11, 2019. / academic outcomes, first year experience, freshmen, learning outcomes, program evaluation, study abroad / Includes bibliographical references. / Linda Schrader, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Robert A. Schwartz, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Elizabeth M. Jakubowski, University Representative; Patrice Iatarola, Committee Member; Toby Park, Committee Member.

Purpose: Distance education has become an increasingly common mode of instruction in U.S. higher education, and today more than a quarter of students are enrolled in distance courses or programs that are fully online. This dissertation asks two fundamental questions related to the growing presence of distance-based instruction in U.S. higher education. First, does increased college access in the form of distance enrollments contribute to horizontal postsecondary stratification? Second, is the adoption of distance education indicative of academic capitalism? I make use of two broad theoretical perspectives to frame my analysis and develop a set of hypotheses concerning the types of colleges and universities that enroll greater percentages of undergraduates in at least one distance course or completely online degree programs. Drawing on the “effectively maintained inequality” (EMI) perspective, I hypothesize that enrollment in distance courses and programs will be higher at less selective colleges and universities and will vary by institutional sector. Regarding sector, I hypothesize that distance enrollments are highest at for-profit institutions, and higher at public institutions than at private. Based on the “academic capitalism” perspective, I hypothesize that institutions with lower levels of financial resources will rely more heavily on distance education as a revenue source and a means of reducing costs. Methods: I test these hypotheses using the NCES Integrated Postsecondary Education Data Set for 2015-16. The sample of consists of 2,180 four-year postsecondary institutions. Hypotheses are tested using one-way and two-way ANOVA models and bivariate correlation analyses. Results: Enrollment in distance education varies significantly by level of selectivity, sector, and financial resources. As hypothesized, less selective institutions have significantly higher percentages of distance enrollment, but interesting subtleties emerge between sectors. Within public institutions distance course and program enrollment are fairly steady across selectivity levels, while enrollment differs substantially among private colleges and universities. Additional analyses of student composition by sector and selectivity confirm that social inequalities by race and class are not likely diminished by distance education. Institutions with fewer resources and expenditures have higher levels of distance education, as expected. Specifically, private institutions with fewer financial resources have greater distance course and program enrollment, and for-profits with fewer resources have greater distance program enrollment. However, overall revenue and expenses are not related to distance enrollment among public universities. Exploratory analysis of detailed revenue and expenditures paint a more nuanced picture of the financial resources that vary with greater reliance on distance courses and programs. Conclusion: The growth of distance enrollments does not reduce social stratification in higher education because distance enrollment growth is occurring disproportionately at less selective private and for-profit colleges and universities—institutions that are costlier to attend, have lower economic payoffs, and disproportionately enroll students of color and lower income college students. The growth of distance enrollment is also consistent with depiction of higher education as an academic capitalist regime, in that distance enrollment appears to function as a revenue source for colleges and universities, particularly for those outside the public sector. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sociology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2019. / March 27, 2019. / education, financial, postsecondary, sector, selectivity, sociology / Includes bibliographical references. / John Reynolds, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert A. Schwartz, University Representative; Irene Padavic, Committee Member; Karen Brewster, Committee Member.

This comparative case study explores the agency of two teacher leaders (TLs) as they facilitate their respective teacher-organized lesson study groups. Applying sociocultural theory, I describe TL agency as manifesting at two levels: (1) the meanings teachers make about student learning, teaching, and teacher learning and (2) their talk and actions as facilitators of teacher learning during lesson study. I find that differences in each TL’s meanings of teaching and learning contribute to different approaches to facilitation and ultimately, different opportunities to learn for the teachers in each group, despite a very similar lesson study design and context. One TL’s meanings of teaching and learning demonstrate a strong and cohesive vision of instructional improvement that reflects constructivist shifts in mathematics education and emphasizes deepening understanding of the connections between ideas and/or strategies. Her facilitation shapes opportunities to learn characterized by engaging in the resolving of dissonances between new and prior understandings. The other TL’s meanings of teaching and learning reflect a fusion of traditional and constructivist approaches to teaching and learning, where exploration of multiple tools and strategies is valued, but primacy remains on the outcome of correct solutions. Her facilitation does not shape opportunities to learn characterized by deepened understandings or shifts in meanings of teaching and learning. Policy implications for supporting TLs’ agency in collaborative learning will be discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2019. / March 25, 2019. / Agency, Collaborative Professional Learning, Lesson Study, Teacher leaders / Includes bibliographical references. / Motoko Akiba, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeanine Turner, University Representative; Ayesha Khurshid, Committee Member; Stacey Rutledge, Committee Member.

Thesis (Ed. D.)--State University of New York at Binghamton, School of Education, 2006. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--The University of British Columbia (Canada), 1975. / Includes bibliographical references.