This study offers an in-depth exploration of the conditions from which the implementation of a curriculum called the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE), later localised into Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education (SGCSE), emerged and the constraining and enabling conditions for the implementation of the new I/SGCSE curriculum. It derives its theoretical foundation from Roy Bhaskar’s critical realism and Margaret Archer’s concept of analytical separability. The study therefore offers explanations about the curriculum change and its implementation that are based on how structural, cultural, and agential mechanisms operating at a deeper level of reality (the intransitive layer of reality or the domain of the real) and existing independently of what we see, know or believe of them (the transitive layer of reality or domains of the actual and empirical) interacted to condition the emergence of I/SGCSE and the way it is implemented. I conduct a critical discourse analysis of relevant literature, I/SGCSE documents and interview data in order to identify those mechanisms that were cultural and also those that were structural and agential. Bernstein’s concepts of classification and framing are used to analyse observation data in order to explore the influence of these mechanisms on the teaching practices of the teachers who took part in the study. Analysis of the data suggests that the change from General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O-level) to I/SGCSE was conditioned by inconsistencies between the cultural and structural mechanisms of the Swazi context. Many of the cultural elements of the Swazi context such as the discourses of good citizens, of competitive advantage, and of quality education draw from global discourses which view relations between people from a postmodernist position and therefore support weakly classified and framed pedagogic practices. In contrast, the discourse of morality and many of the structural elements of the Swazi context, such as the pre2006 education system and the Tinkhundla government system, all view reality from a modernist position, therefore supporting strong relations of power and control. The cultural system therefore exerted more influence in conditioning the change from the strongly classified and framed GCE O-level curriculum to the weakly classified and framed I/SGCSE curriculum. Furthermore, the analysis of interview and observation data suggests that inconsistencies between the global discourses and the discourses and structures that teachers confront in their day-to-day lives, together with the decisions teachers made in response to structural constraints, created constraining conditions for the change from GCE O-level to I/SGCSE. The study adds to knowledge on curriculum change and implementation through insights into the enabling and constraining effects of mechanisms operating at a deeper level of reality on curriculum-change decisions and on the ability of teachers to implement curriculum changes. The focus on the deeper level of reality may therefore contribute towards emancipatory knowledge which could be used not only by the Ministry of Education and Training and teachers in Swaziland but also elsewhere to inform future planning, decision making, and practice in relation to curriculum change and implementation.

This study of the legal and management frameworks for private higher education institutions in Swaziland provides a theoretical framework for the establishment and management of such institutions and especially the Southern Africa Nazarene University (SANU). A literature review of Swaziland’s education legislation and education system, the legal processes for the establishment of private higher education institutions, the types and legal status of these, their funding of, and their organisational and management structures provided the theoretical framework upon which the study was based. The review indicated that: a private higher education system in Swaziland was in the process of being developed; such institutions were established and operated within the overall higher education system; there were two legal instruments that could be used to establish these institutions – an Act of Parliament and a Certificate of Registration; the government was the major funder of private higher education institutions; and there are different organisational and management structures in existence. Against this background an empirical qualitative investigation was conducted. Data was collected from education managers, government officials, Church leadership, and legal representatives through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation. The findings of the empirical investigation complemented the findings obtained from the literature review. The underdevelopment of the private higher education system resulted in two major implications: uncertainty of the legal process for the establishment of SANU, and the development as well as immediate implementation of education legislation and policies. The application of the legal procedures outlined by the Higher Education Bill of 2007 to the establishment, management and funding of SANU affords a good example. Even though the people entrusted with the establishment of SANU selected the Act of Parliament for this process and developed the SANU Bill, government officials instead advocated and implemented the certification process regarding the establishment and management of SANU. Subvention, tuition fees, commercial farming and provision of short term occupational training programmes were identified as income-generating strategies for SANU. A unique organisational and management structure was developed for SANU. Based on those findings, several recommendations for the improvement of the management of the process of establishment of universities in Swaziland and especially SANU were made. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Education Management)

This study of the legal and management frameworks for private higher education institutions in Swaziland provides a theoretical framework for the establishment and management of such institutions and especially the Southern Africa Nazarene University (SANU). A literature review of Swaziland’s education legislation and education system, the legal processes for the establishment of private higher education institutions, the types and legal status of these, their funding of, and their organisational and management structures provided the theoretical framework upon which the study was based. The review indicated that: a private higher education system in Swaziland was in the process of being developed; such institutions were established and operated within the overall higher education system; there were two legal instruments that could be used to establish these institutions – an Act of Parliament and a Certificate of Registration; the government was the major funder of private higher education institutions; and there are different organisational and management structures in existence. Against this background an empirical qualitative investigation was conducted. Data was collected from education managers, government officials, Church leadership, and legal representatives through in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation. The findings of the empirical investigation complemented the findings obtained from the literature review. The underdevelopment of the private higher education system resulted in two major implications: uncertainty of the legal process for the establishment of SANU, and the development as well as immediate implementation of education legislation and policies. The application of the legal procedures outlined by the Higher Education Bill of 2007 to the establishment, management and funding of SANU affords a good example. Even though the people entrusted with the establishment of SANU selected the Act of Parliament for this process and developed the SANU Bill, government officials instead advocated and implemented the certification process regarding the establishment and management of SANU. Subvention, tuition fees, commercial farming and provision of short term occupational training programmes were identified as income-generating strategies for SANU. A unique organisational and management structure was developed for SANU. Based on those findings, several recommendations for the improvement of the management of the process of establishment of universities in Swaziland and especially SANU were made. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Education Management)

The notion of a curriculum that is relevant, aligned and properly implemented has prevailed in Swaziland as indicated by the change from a content-led curriculum to a skills-driven one. The process of curriculum alignment as being the cornerstone of educational relevance and development has prevailed since the country’s independence. In the 21stCentury, the process culminated in the development and implementation of the Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education curriculum at senior secondary school level. This thesis traces the process of ensuring that the SGCSE curriculum is aligned in local contexts through descriptive analyses of the critical post-implementation developments of eight schools in the Shiselweni region. The perceptions of language heads of departments (HoDs) in underprivileged settings are described. Established constructs for the curriculum to be aligned in the contexts are reviewed and local language department heads’ perceptions on curriculum alignment are analysed. The strengths and shortfalls of their attempts in aligning the curriculum in their contexts of implementation are highlighted. Recommendations for future development are then suggested. The purpose of the study was to describe the perceptions on policy change and curriculum alignment of language department heads from underprivileged schools in Swaziland. An examination of their documents showed that the HoDs applauded curriculum alignment. After interviews, it was revealed that the HoDs viewed alignment of the curriculum in the local context to be a strategy of ensuring that the curriculum was successful in the context of implementation. Language department heads in the schools believed that the government had a major role to play in ensuring institutional commitment towards the directives that the government itself was issuing, before the school principals could do anything. The HoDs also believed that there was a need for administrative support in the form of support from the principals of the schools, followed therein by a fundamental need for cross-departmental cooperation and support from the community within which the schools are located. Departmental teamwork was also considered essential for success. It was therefore concluded that aligning the curriculum was extremely frustrating in that while the HoDs were aware of the local needs of students, it was also clear that local curriculum decision-making could not take place effectively without external support from the governing body, the Ministry of Education. It was recommended that the Ministry of Education should deal directly with the HoDs with regard to issues relating to curriculum interpretation and implementation. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / D. Ed. (Curriculum Studies)

The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation and sustainability of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Swaziland in terms of the interplay between policy and practice. The study was undertaken in four schools in the Manzini region of Swaziland. The schools were purposively sampled on the basis of their location. The participants consisted of the head teacher, a teacher and a parent, and six learners from each of the schools. Two Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) officials were also included; a regional inspector for primary schools stationed at the Manzini Regional Education Offices (REOs) and a senior official stationed at MoET headquarters. A qualitative approach and a case study design were used. The participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview schedules, while the learners were engaged in focus group interviews at each school which were conducted according to a focus group interview schedule. Documents were also used as data sources. Data was analysed using a thematic and document analysis approach. The findings revealed a disconnection between policy and practice. FPE implementers are not well versed on the policies they are supposed to implement as they were not included in the policy-making process. Moreover, no consideration had been given to the legal framework underpinning FPE. It was found that the sustainability of FPE is threatened by certain indirect costs of schooling as well as the top-up fees that are being charged illegally by some schools, resulting in some learners dropping out of school – defeating the purpose of FPE and violating their right to access education. It would appear that the most contentious issue for FPE in Swaziland is the top-fee, although the head teachers were of the view that the FPE grant paid by government is inadequate for running schools and therefore top-up fees are necessary. Problems were also identified with the embezzling of school funds by head teachers. These issues have led to tension between schools and the MoET / Educational Leadership and Management / D. Ed. (Education Management)

The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation and sustainability of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Swaziland in terms of the interplay between policy and practice. The study was undertaken in four schools in the Manzini region of Swaziland. The schools were purposively sampled on the basis of their location. The participants consisted of the head teacher, a teacher and a parent, and six learners from each of the schools. Two Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) officials were also included; a regional inspector for primary schools stationed at the Manzini Regional Education Offices (REOs) and a senior official stationed at MoET headquarters. A qualitative approach and a case study design were used. The participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview schedules, while the learners were engaged in focus group interviews at each school which were conducted according to a focus group interview schedule. Documents were also used as data sources. Data was analysed using a thematic and document analysis approach. The findings revealed a disconnection between policy and practice. FPE implementers are not well versed on the policies they are supposed to implement as they were not included in the policy-making process. Moreover, no consideration had been given to the legal framework underpinning FPE. It was found that the sustainability of FPE is threatened by certain indirect costs of schooling as well as the top-up fees that are being charged illegally by some schools, resulting in some learners dropping out of school – defeating the purpose of FPE and violating their right to access education. It would appear that the most contentious issue for FPE in Swaziland is the top-fee, although the head teachers were of the view that the FPE grant paid by government is inadequate for running schools and therefore top-up fees are necessary. Problems were also identified with the embezzling of school funds by head teachers. These issues have led to tension between schools and the MoET. / Educational Leadership and Management / D. Ed. (Education Management)

The notion of a curriculum that is relevant, aligned and properly implemented has prevailed in Swaziland as indicated by the change from a content-led curriculum to a skills-driven one. The process of curriculum alignment as being the cornerstone of educational relevance and development has prevailed since the country’s independence. In the 21stCentury, the process culminated in the development and implementation of the Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education curriculum at senior secondary school level. This thesis traces the process of ensuring that the SGCSE curriculum is aligned in local contexts through descriptive analyses of the critical post-implementation developments of eight schools in the Shiselweni region. The perceptions of language heads of departments (HoDs) in underprivileged settings are described. Established constructs for the curriculum to be aligned in the contexts are reviewed and local language department heads’ perceptions on curriculum alignment are analysed. The strengths and shortfalls of their attempts in aligning the curriculum in their contexts of implementation are highlighted. Recommendations for future development are then suggested. The purpose of the study was to describe the perceptions on policy change and curriculum alignment of language department heads from underprivileged schools in Swaziland. An examination of their documents showed that the HoDs applauded curriculum alignment. After interviews, it was revealed that the HoDs viewed alignment of the curriculum in the local context to be a strategy of ensuring that the curriculum was successful in the context of implementation. Language department heads in the schools believed that the government had a major role to play in ensuring institutional commitment towards the directives that the government itself was issuing, before the school principals could do anything. The HoDs also believed that there was a need for administrative support in the form of support from the principals of the schools, followed therein by a fundamental need for cross-departmental cooperation and support from the community within which the schools are located. Departmental teamwork was also considered essential for success. It was therefore concluded that aligning the curriculum was extremely frustrating in that while the HoDs were aware of the local needs of students, it was also clear that local curriculum decision-making could not take place effectively without external support from the governing body, the Ministry of Education. It was recommended that the Ministry of Education should deal directly with the HoDs with regard to issues relating to curriculum interpretation and implementation. / Curriculum and Instructional Studies / D. Ed. (Curriculum Studies)