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Substantial sums of money are invested by governments in state, national and international testing programs. Australia in particular engages at all three levels. There are number of purposes served by these programs. One of these is to report student performance against standards. Standard setting exercises with respect to a particular assessment are commonly used by testing programs where there is a requirement to determine the point at which it can be said that students have demonstrated achievement of a standard. Several methodologies have been devised that use expert judgements to derive a numerical cut-score on an achievement scale. A commonly used standard setting methodology is one proposed by Angoff (1971). The kernel of the Angoff procedure is the independent judgement of the probability that a minimally competent person can or cannot answer a dichotomously scored item correctly. This methodology typically involves three stages: orientation and training, a first round of performance estimation followed by feedback, and then a second round of performance estimation. In the orientation session, judges are asked to define a hypothetical target group. This definition is dependent upon the judges’ tacit understanding of the standard. For example, in the context of a mathematics test, judges would be asked to agree the skills the students should be expected to have mastered. Then they would be asked to envisage a student with those skills and to estimate the proportion of a hypothetical group of equally competent students (as defined by the expected standard) who would answer each item correctly. This proportion is the estimate of the required probability. Then the sum of these probabilities is taken as the raw cut-score on a test composed of the items. Several studies, however, question the validity of the Angoff methodology because of the finding that judges were unable to perform the fundamental task required of them: to estimate the probability a student would answer an item correctly, (Shepard, 1995) even for groups of students who are well known to them (Impara and Blake, 1996). In addition, standard-setting exercises invariably take place in situations where the reporting of educational standards has a high profile and is of political importance. To address the accountability requirements that accompany such a task, a wide range of stakeholders are invited to act as judges in the exercises. Inevitably, however, variability between the judges conception of the standard, as represented by the cut-score set by each of them, causes concern. Can the public have confidence in the standard set if the judges themselves cannot agree? Several studies report the introduction of further rounds of performance estimation and more refined feedback in an attempt to obtain greater consistency between the judges’ ratings (Impara and Blake, 2000; McGinty and Neel, 1996; Reckase, 2000). In more recent studies Green, Trimble and Lewis (2003) report a study in which three standard setting procedures were implemented to set cut-scores and which required judges to synthesise the results to establish final cut-points. Green et al report studies such as Impara and Blake (2000) where convergence of results among multiple standard settings are used as evidence of validity of cut-scores, but note that while convergence may occur to a reasonable degree when variations of the same method are used, there are few reports of convergence when different procedures are used. The distinguishing factor between the standard-setting exercises reported in the literature, which rely on judges’ tacit understanding of the standard and this study, is the existence of an explicitly and operationally defined standard. In 1996 the Australian Ministers for Education agreed to a national framework for reporting of student achievement in literacy and numeracy and arising from this decision was the drafting of benchmark standards against which the achievement of students in years 3, 5, 7 and 9 could be reported. The benchmark standards are articulated in two components. Criteria describe the skills that students need to have acquired if it is to be said that they achieved the standard and sample work exemplify these criteria. The setting of standards independently of placing them on a scale permitted a more rigorous assessment of the effects of different designs on the setting of cut-scores. Two different standard-setting methodologies have been employed in this study to translate descriptions of the standards into cut-scores. One draws on the Angoff method and involves the use of a rating scale. Judges consider the items of a test and indicate the probability that a student at the cut-score will answer each item correctly. The probabilities are in increments of 0.10, ranging from 0.0 to 1.0. The sum of the probabilities that a judge gives to the items is taken as the raw score cut-score from that judge. The second study involves a method of pairwise comparison of the same items together with items that are operationalised to be benchmark items. The judge has to decide which of each pair of items is the more difficult. The results of the two benchmark setting designs appear to support findings from other standard-setting exercises reported in the literature. Namely, i. Judges were unable to estimate absolute item difficulty for a student of prescribed ability. ii. Where two different designs were used, there is no convergence in results. iii. Ratings from different judges within each design varied widely. To indicate the resultant discrepancy in setting the benchmark on the same test, the rating methodology gives a value of 16.08 and the pairwise a value of 7.10 on ostensibly the same scale. A closer examination of the judges’ ratings, however, suggests that despite the evidence of dramatically different cut scores between the two exercises, the judges were highly consistent in their interpretation of relative item difficulty. Two lines of evidence indicate this high level of internal consistency: (i) the reliability index for the pairwise data; and (ii) the correlation between the item estimates obtained from the rating and pairwise exercises, which was 0.95. In addition, the correlation of the relative item difficulties with those obtained from students responding to the same items was a satisfactory 0.80 and 0.74 for the ratings and for the pairwise designs, respectively. The high correlation between judgements across the two exercises, in conjunction with the relatively high correlation of the item difficulties from the judges’ data and from the student data, suggests that problems observed in the literature do not arise because judges cannot differentiate the relative difficulties of the items. Accordingly, the unit of scale as assessed by the standard deviations of the item difficulties were calculated and examined. The standard deviation of the items from judges in the likelihood design was half that of the item difficulties from the student responses, and the standard deviation of the items from the pairwise design was over twice that of the student scale. The substantial difference between the standard deviations suggests a difference between the units of scale, which presents a fundamental problem for common equating. In general, and in the literature, it seems that the unit of scale as evidenced from the standard deviations is not considered and it seems that it is simply assumed that the unit of scale produced by the students and the judges is the same and each design should be the same. Then if the results of different modes of the data collections do not arrive at the same or very similar cut-scores, it is not considered that this might be only a result of different units of scale. In retrospect, it is not surprising that different formats for data collection produce different units of scale, and that different cut-scores result. In addition, it is not surprising that these might also produce a different unit of scale from that produced by the responses of the students. The reasons that the different designs are likely to produce different units of scale are considered in the thesis. Differences in the unit of scale will inevitably have an impact on the location of the benchmark or cut-score. When the difference in standard deviation is accounted for, and the cut-scores are placed on the same scale as that produced by the students, the two exercises provide similar locations of the benchmark cut-score. Importantly, the thesis shows that these locations can be substantiated qualitatively as representing the defined standard. There are two main conclusions of the study. First, some of the problems reported in the literature in setting benchmarks can be attributed to difference in the units of scale in the various response formats of judges relative to those of students. Second, this difference in unit of scale needs to be taken into account when locating the standard on the student scale. This thesis describes in detail the two cut-score setting designs for the data collection, and the transformations that are necessary in order to locate the benchmark on the same scale as that produced by the responses of the students.

This study was made in an attempt to determine whether or not the manuals for the reading textbooks published since 1930 meet the standards set up by the leading educators in the field of reading.

The present investigation took place in the State of Virginia, where the instrument of Statewide change was the Standards of Quality (hereafter SOQ). For the first time in the history of Virginia, performance standards for education were prescribed by the State constitution. The State Board was directed, subject to the ultimate authority of the General Assembly, to prescribe Standards of quality for the Commonwealth's school divisions. It was the goal of the study to define those SOQ factors and processes that affected quality education and to determine to what extent State policy influenced quality education. Inherent in the perception of improved quality of education was the assumption of the academic advancement of students. Correlations and hierarchical (stepwise) analysis methods were used to analyze the effects of SOQ policy implementation school divisions in Virginia from 1972 to 1980. The composition of the total variance in the regression equation was examined to identify the effect of the independent variables, i.e., SOQ policy standards, SOQ financial policy - - per pupil cost and classroom teacher salary, the five year planning process and environmental factors on student achievement in reading, mathematics and language arts as measured by the State standardized testing program. A summary of some significant conclusion of the study follows: 1. State test score norms did improve substantially over the period of implementation of SOQ policy. There was some justification from research findings that SOQ policy contributed somewhat to improved achievement, but non-school factors such as percentage of minorities in the community, family income and student ability were found to have the greatest impact on student achievement. 2. Implementation of SOQ policy did not promote equity in teacher salaries, operational cost per pupil and student achievement in local school divisions in Virginia. If the intent of SOQ policy was the implementation of educational policy throughout Virginia, it must be judged to have been effective in getting localities to meet specific program and personnel quantity standards. Yet, SOQ policy fell far short of assuring equal opportunities for academic achievement for students among the school divisions in Virginia. / Ed. D.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Economics / William F. Blankenau / This dissertation consists of three essays focusing on wage inequality and education policy. Essay 1 considers growth in the variance of wages. Prior work has documented that the college premium plays a major role in explaining wage variance growth. This essay examines the extent to which this role can be attributed to an increase in the dispersion of occupation-specific returns to post-secondary education. Using the variance components approach and CPS data between 1979-1981 and 2003-2005, the essay shows that the variation in the college premium across occupations has increased over time, and this variation expansion explains about five percent of the growth in wage variance across the two periods. By dividing the sample workforce into professional and nonprofessional groups, the results suggest that the increased variation in the return to post-secondary education particularly caused the wage gap between the professional and non-professional workers to increase. Essay 2 applies quantile regression methodology to the study of the determinants of the wage distribution among natives and immigrants in the U.S., using PUMS from 1990 and 2000, and ACS from 2006. Among other findings, the immigrant/native wage gap is concentrated at the lower end to the median of the wage distribution, and the primary source of the wage gap is the relative lack of labor market skills among immigrants. A cross-time comparison shows that the recent immigrant/native wage gap after controlling for skill variables first decreased from 1990 to 2000 and then expanded from 2000 to 2006. The growth is concentrated at the two ends of the wage distribution, and the reason for growth is that the recent immigrants in 2006 are younger and thus have less market experience than their counterparts of 1990. Essay 3 is coauthored with Dr. Blankenau. We analyze the impact of changes in college admission standards on the skilled labor distribution, skilled firm distribution, and the match of skilled labor with skilled firms. We propose a model of schooling with heterogeneous labor and firms, in which firms’ decisions in creating skilled jobs are conditioned on the supply of skilled labor. The model shows that lowering standards without providing incentives to acquire skills does not necessarily motivate accumulation of human capital or expansion of skilled industry. Lower standards tend to create a mismatch of educated labor with unskilled positions. In some specifications, lower standards can lower firms’ willingness to create skilled positions, leaving more skilled workers underemployed.

The research project explores the effect of empowerment to schools. All stakeholders should be empowered for improvement of quality education and school effectiveness. Two groups of schools were identified, that is, low performing and high performing schools. The aim of this research is to investigate why some schools performed better than others. The purpose of research is to prove that effective schooling can take place through empowerment and that school management can be successful where there is high commitment. The qualitative research method was employed. It refers to research that elicits participant's account and meaning, experience or perceptions. It also produces descriptive data in the participant's own written or spoken words. To gather empirical data, the following research methods were employed; literature study and focus group interview. The following categories emerged: -  Discipline  Lack of commitment and motivation in the learning environment  Management leadership styles applied in schools  Lack of support / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Education Management)

This thesis addresses the paradigm shift required for an MBA qualification in a world order of inclusive globalisation (WOIG) – where humankind‟s security is assured, and where global poverty has been eradicated. A new research methodology, termed critical metasynthesis, which is the enrichment of critical management research with metasynthesis and Socrates‟ dialectic method of systematic inquiry has been used. The critical metasynthesis derives its outcome from the insights of global leaders from the developed and developing world, refuted by Nobel Laureates from the past decade. From the Socratic dialogue an end-purpose Statement of Visions for a new world order, society, business, business leadership, and the postmodern MBA emerged, namely: to deliver a WOIG; requiring a society that finds its greatness in protecting both its humanity and its economy as a whole; requiring world-class businesses – financially robust across business cycles, with global stewardship as the dominant business logic; requiring global business leaders with an ability to envision the WOIG, and then to lead thereto in an entrepreneurial and path-breaking manner exerting leadership qualities associated with the golden Rule of Humanity; requiring an MBA that educates and inspires the business leader to lead (and, to co-lead with societal and political leaders) the planetary turn-around to a WOIG. For this, a fundamental change of paradigm for the MBA emerged as a prerequisite. The first prerequisite is a Social Contract with Business as a trichotomy of global business responsibility towards society, politics and the Earth. This, becomes the raison d‟être of the postmodern MBA. The second prerequisite is an educational context aligned with the values and aspirations of a WOIG society. The outcome of the postmodern MBA is a fundamental personal re-orientation as thé kairos moment - through holistic critical reasoning excellence and achieving a WOIG mindset. Flowing from this to craft, build and to manage enterprises for the turn-around from today‟s world order of destructive globalisation to a WOIG. The thesis contributes a new educational context, vocabulary, and guidelines for a new canon of MBA knowledge. The thesis concludes by describing new vistas of follow-up research in four interlocking priorities for the professoriate, namely: discovering, integrating, applying and teaching a postmodern MBA in a WOIG – to deliver MBA graduates who can lead any business in any industry sector in any country towards positive sustained results for all stakeholders. / Business Leadership / D.B.L.

There were two main purposes of this quantitative study. The first purpose was to identify characteristics associated with the selected sample of academic advisors that comprise study. Secondly, the study sought to determine how well work related activities of a selected population of academic advisors correlate with professional characteristics constructs and professional standards constructs of academic advising as a profession. The study used Habley’s (1986) characteristics of a profession to derive the studies professional characteristic construct, education activities, research activities, and professional development activities as it relates to a selected group of academic advisors work related activities. The studies professional standards construct was derived from five Council for the Advancement of Standards (CAS) professional standards for academic as it relates to a selected group of academic advisors work related activities. The study of 78 out of 210 identified full-time academic advisors at two-and four-year public colleges and universities in the North Texas Region utilized a multidimensional researcher-developed Web survey instrument designed to measure professional standards and characteristic within the field of academic advising. Study results reinforced current criticism of research and education activities within the field of academic advising showing that the lack of scholarly research and education activities among academic advisors decreases significantly their efforts towards professionalization. Also, professional standards construct results suggest that the utilization of CAS standards for academic advising as an evaluation tool may enhance an academic advisor’s knowledge of professional standards within the field.

Paraeducators are increasingly involved in the education of students with disabilities. In order for paraeducators to properly work with this population, they must have adequate and ongoing training. Research has shown that paraeducators do not receive appropriate training in order to work with students with disabilities. The purpose of this study is to investigate the self-perceived knowledge of paraeducators working in special education and their level of training need. The study examines paraeducators' work environment, responsibilities, knowledge based on the Utah Standards for Paraeducators and perceived training needs. Ninety-five special education paraeducators working in a large, suburban school district in the intermountain west participated in a survey. The results of this research suggest that paraeducators desire training in areas of their assigned duties. Overall, they feel confident in their abilities but are open to learning more. This study suggests that there is not enough training for paraeducators who generally work with the most at-risk population in the school.